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9990-2021-mj-21-q01
May/June 2021 · Paper 21 · Question 1 · 3 marks
1 In the study by Pepperberg (parrot learning), several features of the
procedure helped to improve reliability.
1(a) State what is meant by ‘reliability’. 1
1 mark for definition
The consistency of a procedure/task/measure;
whether the procedure/task/measure produces the same results with the
same people each time (it is used);
• reliability is about consistency = 1 mark
• to be reliable, measures must measure the phenomenon in the same
way each time = 1 mark
• whether a test produces the same results every time = 0 marks
1(b) Suggest how one feature of the procedure helped to make this study 2
reliable.
1 mark for feature that helped reliability
1 mark for link
standardised (questions)/question all equally hard; (feature)
the questions asked were always phrased ‘what’s same?’ or ‘what’s
different?’; (link)
There was no risk of improvement within a test; (feature)
because the same materials were never presented again during a test; (link)
only (very) specific responses were accepted as correct; (feature)
e.g. ‘colour’/‘shape’/‘mah mah’ for ‘matter’; (link)
Alex could not guess; (feature)
because his ‘first trial’ performance was measured; (link)
© UCLES 2021 Page 4 of 15
Official mark scheme pages: 4 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-mj-21-q02
May/June 2021 · Paper 21 · Question 2 · 4 marks
2 In the study by Andrade (doodling), one possible uncontrolled variable
was whether the participants had friends with the same names as the
people in the mock telephone call.
2(a) Suggest one problem this uncontrolled variable might have caused. 2
1 mark for problem
1 mark for a detail
One point must be linked for full 2 marks
Lowers validity; (generic problem)
as people with friends of the same name will recall better; (linked detail)
means Andrade could not be certain that differences were caused by the IV;
(generic problem)
so it is not the effect of the doodling; (linked detail)
2(b) Suggest how the problem you referred to (a) could be solved. 2
1 mark for solution
1 mark for a detail
One point must be linked for full 2 marks
Ask people to name their friends; (linked solution)
(at least a week) prior to the study/ask friends of the participants to name all
their friends; (generic detail)
Eliminate people with friends of the same name; (linked solution)
by interviewing them after the study; (generic detail)
Use really unusual/made up names in the mock telephone call; (linked
solution)
so that it is unlikely that anyone will have friends with those names; (linked
detail)
use another feature than names; (linked solution)
e.g. use food names (of party foods); (linked solution)
© UCLES 2021 Page 5 of 15
Official mark scheme pages: 5 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-mj-21-q03
May/June 2021 · Paper 21 · Question 3 · 5 marks
3(a) State what is meant by a ‘case study’. 2
1 mark for each (of two) descriptive points (definitive)
one instance/one person/one individual/one unit;
in detail/depth/descriptive/(lots of) qualitative data;
Do not accept ‘lots of data’ – all methods collect lots of data
3(b) One type of colour blindness is when people cannot tell the difference 3
between the colours red and green.
Describe how a case study to investigate colour blindness could be
conducted.
3 marks for three points on how to conduct the study
1 point must be directly linked to earn full 3 marks
Use volunteer sampling to obtain a colour blind person; (link)
advertise for colour blind people online; (link)
Conduct interviews; (generic)
to ask detailed questions about their past, e.g. how they found out that
sensory experience was different; (link)
Present them with coloured stimuli and ask them what they see; (link)
Make observations; (generic)
e.g. see what colour they say when see they red/green objects around
them; (link)
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 6 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-mj-21-q04
May/June 2021 · Paper 21 · Question 4 · 2 marks
4 In the study by Yamamoto et al. (chimpanzee helping), quantitative 2
data was collected.
Suggest one strength of collecting quantitative data in this study.
1 mark for identifying strength (can be generic)
1 mark for link
it is objective/it is not subjective/it does not require interpretation =
1 (advantage)
so the measure of helping by each chimp will be consistent/reliable = 2nd
mark link
it is numerical = 1 (advantage)
so helping scores can be easily compared/analysed/are more valid = 2nd
mark link
© UCLES 2021 Page 6 of 15
Official mark scheme pages: 6 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-mj-21-q05
May/June 2021 · Paper 21 · Question 5 · 2 marks
5 Explain one weakness of random sampling. 2
1 mark for weakness
1 mark for detail
It is limited by the population chosen;
a random sample of students of one school may not be representative of all
schools;
It is limited by access to the population;
randomly selected people can be asked to participate, but some may not
(and if similar, this causes bias);
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 7 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-mj-21-q06
May/June 2021 · Paper 21 · Question 6 · 6 marks
6 Describe structured observations and unstructured observations, 6
using any examples.
Definitions/detail: up to a maximum of 4 marks for each observational
technique.
Examples: maximum of 2 marks for each technique.
Examples can include examples from any studies (core studies, other
studies, candidate’s own studies).
Max 4 if no examples
A structured observation records a limited range of behaviours; which must
be listed/defined; (definition)
Detail:
• structured observations use behaviour checklists;
• so it is more reliable than unstructured observation;
• they collect quantitative data;
• they can be used as a technique to measure the DV in experiments;
examples:
• Piliavin et al. help/not help;
• Bandura et al. specific aggressive/non-aggressive actions/verbal
responses;
An unstructured observation records all behaviours; (definition)
Detail:
• Unstructured observations are often pilot studies;
• And may collect qualitative data (and quantitative data);
• Used to refine the range of behaviours for further study;
• to identify/define behavioural categories to record;
examples:
• Milgram responses when giving shocks;
• Pepperberg Alex’s actions when ‘bored’;
• Yamamoto et al. additional behaviour, e.g. peeping through hole;
• Schachter and Singer responses to stooges;
© UCLES 2021 Page 7 of 15
Official mark scheme pages: 7 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-mj-21-q07
May/June 2021 · Paper 21 · Question 7 · 5 marks
7 Kira is conducting a correlational study looking for a relationship
between level of creativity and the amount of time spent playing sport.
Kira could find a positive or a negative correlation.
7(a) State whether Kira should use a directional or a non-directional 1
hypothesis. Include a reason for your answer.
1 mark for explanation of why it should be non-directional
(no marks for just stating non-directional)
non-directional because she does not know whether there will be a positive
or a negative correlation;
7(b) State what Kira would find if there was a negative correlation. 1
1 mark for explanation
As the amount of creativity went up, the amount of time spent playing sport
would go down; ORA
7(c) Write a null hypothesis for Kira’s study. 1
1 mark for a correlational null hypothesis
It must include both variables. Hypothesis does not have to be
operationalised.
There will be no correlation/link/relationship between time spent playing
sport and (level of) creativity;
Any correlation/link/relationship between time spent playing sport and (level
of) creativity is due to chance;
Experimental hypotheses (or statements that are not hypotheses) = 0 marks
e.g. There will be no difference between creativity in people who spent a
little and a lot of time spent playing sport = 0
e.g. There will be no difference between creativity and time spent playing
sport = 0 marks
e.g. Any difference between time spent playing sport and creativity is due to
chance = 0 marks
Alternative hypotheses = 0 marks
There will be a correlation/link/relationship between time spent playing sport
and (level) of creativity; = 0
© UCLES 2021 Page 8 of 15
7(d) Kira finds a strong correlation. 2
Explain whether Kira will know if one variable is causing the change in
the other variable.
1 mark for explaining why not (no marks for just ‘no’)
1 mark for link
No, because a correlation cannot demonstrate a causal relationship;
(generic why)
So creativity could cause people to play more sport or playing more sport
could reduce creativity; (link)
No, because a third factor could cause the change in both variables;
(generic why)
e.g. schooling could cause both an increase in creativity and less time spent
playing sport; (link)
© UCLES 2021 Page 9 of 15
Official mark scheme pages: 8, 9 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-mj-21-q08
May/June 2021 · Paper 21 · Question 8 · 5 marks
8 Ruth is planning an interview to investigate the emotional effect of
being a wedding guest.
8(a) Suggest one open question that Ruth could ask about the emotional 1
effect of being a wedding guest.
1 mark for an open question about emotions
Describe how being a wedding guest makes you feel;
Describe what emotions you experience when you see a wedding party;
Why does being a wedding guest make you happy?
8(b) Suggest one closed question that Ruth could ask about the emotional 1
effect of being a wedding guest.
1 mark for a closed question about emotions with answer choices
Rate how you feel when you are a wedding guest on a scale of 1 (not
happy) to 1 (very happy);
When you see a wedding party do you feel happy/sad/jealous/indifferent?
yes/no;
8(c) Explain how Ruth could ensure her procedure is ethical. 3
1 mark for identification of what Ruth could do to ensure ethical procedure
2 marks for further detail, 1 mark per point
For full 3 marks, at least one point should be linked
Enable participants to give informed consent; (identification of generic point)
So they would know that they might be asked about weddings; (linked
detail)
So single people could choose not to participate if they didn’t want to;
(linked detail)
Debrief participants afterwards; (identification of generic)
So any harm done could be reversed; (generic detail)
So divorced participants could be reassured to return them to their previous
state; (linked detail)
Give wedding guests the right to withdraw; (linked identification)
So if they were upset by a question they could ignore it; (generic detail)
So that people were not harmed; (generic detail)
Invading privacy; (identification of generic point)
© UCLES 2021 Page 10 of 15
Official mark scheme pages: 10 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-mj-21-q09
May/June 2021 · Paper 21 · Question 9 · 14 marks
9 Jabir is investigating the social lives of old people and is using a
questionnaire to measure their friendships.
9(a) Jabir will use volunteer sampling but also wants to make his sample
representative of old people.
9(a)(i) Jabir has identified three features of old people that are relevant to his 3
study:
• whether they live alone or not
• whether they belong to any group or club
• their exact age.
Suggest why each of these features is relevant to Jabir’s study.
1 mark per linked explanation ×3
whether they live alone or not:
people in care homes are surrounded by people they might call ‘friends’;
people living alone are more likely to have known the people nearby for
years, so call them friends;
older people who had more friends when they were young might be more
likely to opt for a care home (so look like they have more friends in old age);
whether they belong to any group or club:
People with sources of people from groups (e.g. religious, clubs, sports)
may appear to have more friends;
older people who had more friends when they were young may be more
likely to join things (so look like they have more friends in old age);
their exact age:
Older people’s friends might be dying more (so they would have fewer);
Older people might have vision/hearing/mobility problems (so may be less
able to maintain friendships);
9(a)(ii) Describe how Jabir could use volunteer sampling to obtain a sample. 3
1 mark for each identification/detail point about how to obtain a volunteer
sample.
For full 3 marks, at least one point should be linked to Jabir’s study.
Place adverts (in a newspaper/on the internet); (generic identification)
In old people’s homes; (linked identification)
on internet sites for old people/dementia/arthritis; (linked detail)
Ask for volunteers for a study on friendships/deceive them about the aim;
(generic detail)
© UCLES 2021 Page 11 of 15
9(a)(iii) Outline one reason why Jabir may exclude some old people from his 1
sample.
1 mark for reason (explained, not identified)
If they are deaf/blind/disabled as it may be hard for them to maintain
friendships;
If they are unwell/recently bereaved as it might be distressing for them;
If they have memory problems so are unable to accurately recall their
friendships;
If they have no family so have greater need of friends;
If they have a large, close family so have no need for friends;
9(b) Suggest how Jabir could define the variable of ‘friendship’ in his 2
study.
1 mark for a basic operationalisation
1 mark for detail
Having a person you can talk to;
Somebody who helps you/who you help;
Who you have known for more than X months/years;
Who you trust;
Who you would confide in;
Who you see/talk to/communicate with regularly;
Who is not a member of your family;
© UCLES 2021 Page 12 of 15
9(c) Jabir intends to collect all of his data in two days. 2
Suggest one reason why this may reduce the validity of his findings.
1 mark for the reason why
1 mark for the effect on the validity of Jabir’s study
Must be linked to Jabir’s study for 2 marks
Deciding if someone is a friend may depend on whether you have
seen/spoken to them recently; (why)
So the measure would be of recent contact not friendships; (effect)
If you feel lonely on the day you are tested you may not be able to
remember any friends at all; (why)
So the measure would be of immediate feelings not friendships; (effect)
Old people may not remember so may need more time to think of their
friends; (why)
So the measure would be of recall ability not friendships; (effect)
Short of time/rushed; (why)
because all the old people might sleep all afternoon so he could only collect
data in two mornings; (effect)
some of the old people might be busy those two days; (why)
so he would have a limited/biased sample; (effect)
No time to interpret = 0 (irrelevant because about analysis of data not
collection)
9(d) Suggest one weakness of using a questionnaire for Jabir’s study. 3
3 marks for suggested weakness.
For full 3 marks, answer must be linked to Jabir’s study.
Old people may have difficulty reading/concentrating; (link)
So they may appear to have fewer friends; (link)
Which reduces validity; (generic)
People may not return questionnaires; (generic)
So the overall number of participants could be low; (generic)
So would not reflect the variability of friendships in old people, lowering
generalisability; (link)
Some types of people may be less likely to return questionnaires; (generic)
e.g. people with lots of friends might be too busy to send them back; (link)
Which would create bias in the data; (generic)
Because the respondents might lie/They might give socially desirable
answers; (generic)
To hide the fact they have no friends; (link)
So it would reduce validity/so it would look like old people have more friends
than they really do;
© UCLES 2021 Page 13 of 15
Official mark scheme pages: 11, 12, 13 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-mj-21-q10
May/June 2021 · Paper 21 · Question 10 · 14 marks
10 Nuan wants to test the idea that the way words are presented affects
recall. She predicts that people will recall more words from a list they
hear than from a list they see.
10(a) Describe how Nuan could conduct a laboratory experiment to test the 10
idea that the way words are presented affects recall.
Three majors for a laboratory experiment are:
What: – will be recorded, i.e. DV recall of the list (operationalisation: scoring)
How: – IV hearing or seeing a list (operationalisation: how it is presented
visually and orally)
– controls (e.g. limiting distractions, time allowed to study list)
The minors are:
• where – location of participants when data is collected (i.e. lab)
• who – participants
Other details for replication:
• experimental design (any are appropriate here)
• sampling technique
• sample size
• description of how data will analysed, e.g. use of measures of central
tendency and spread, bar charts
• ethical issues
Other appropriate responses should also be credited.
Mark according to the levels of response criteria below:
Level 3 (8–10 marks)
• Response is described in sufficient detail to be replicable.
• Response may have a minor omission.
• Use of psychological terminology is accurate and comprehensive.
Level 2 (5–7 marks)
• Response is in some detail.
• Response has minor omission(s).
• Use of psychological terminology is accurate.
Level 1 (1–4 marks)
• Response is basic in detail.
• Response has major omission(s).
• If response is impossible to conduct max. 2.
• Use of psychological terminology is mainly accurate.
Level 0 (0 marks)
No response worthy of credit.
© UCLES 2021 Page 14 of 15
10(b) Identify one practical weakness/limitation with the procedure you have 4
described in your answer to part (a) and suggest how your study might
be done differently to overcome the problem.
Do not refer to ethics or sampling in your answer.
Answer will depend on problem identified.
Problems may, for example, be matters of:
Validity
• operationalisation
• situational/participant variables factors
Reliability
• inter-rater consistency
• intra-rater consistency.
This list is not exhaustive and other appropriate responses should also be
credited.
Marks Comment
3–4 Appropriate problem identified.
Appropriate solution is clearly described.
2 Appropriate problem identified.
plus
EITHER
Explanation of why it is a problem
OR
Ineffectual but possible solution described.
1 Appropriate problem identified.
Little or no justification.
0 No response worthy of credit
© UCLES 2021 Page 15 of 15
Official mark scheme pages: 14, 15 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-mj-22-q01
May/June 2021 · Paper 22 · Question 1 · 2 marks
1(a) State what is meant by an ‘open question’. 1
1 mark for definition
(questionnaire, interview or test) items that produce qualitative data;
Questions allowing participants give answers in full / detailed / in depth;
Questions with (no categories or choices so participants have) freedom to
express themselves / answer in their own words;
Questions that ask ‘describe…’ = 1
Questions that (ask participants to) ‘explain why’ = 1
An open question is not closed = 0
A question without fixed choices = 0
A question without fixed choices that asks participants to describe = 1
1(b) Outline one open question from the study by Dement and Kleitman 1
(sleep and dreams).
1 mark for open question or description of nature of question
Dement and Kleitman – Asked to describe their dream (into a tape
recorder);
However (from Dement and Kleitman):
Eg ‘Did you have a dream’ is a closed Q; Reporting ‘5 or 15 minutes’ is a
closed Q = 0 marks
Did you dream? Yes/No? = 0
Did you dream about: animals, people, food? = 0
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 4 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-mj-22-q02
May/June 2021 · Paper 22 · Question 2 · 3 marks
2 In the study by Baron-Cohen et al. (eyes test), two of the groups of
participants used were:
Group 1 – AS/HFA participants
Group 4 – participants from the general population.
2(a) State two similarities between the participants in Group 1 and Group 4. 2
1 mark for a similarity × 2
Both groups were all male;
(Both were) adults / similar age (28 and 29.5 respectively);
(They were matched for) IQ (116 and 115 respectively);
(Both were) small groups (14 and 15 respectively);
Age = 1
IQ = 1
Adults = 1
Male / same gender = 1
only 14/15 (of them) = 1
© UCLES 2021 Page 4 of 15
2(b) State one difference between how Group 1 and Group 4 were selected, 1
other than being diagnosed with AS/HFA.
1 mark for a difference
Group 1 were volunteers or self-selected and Group 4 were randomly
selected;
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 4, 5 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-mj-22-q03
May/June 2021 · Paper 22 · Question 3 · 4 marks
3 The study by Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans) raised ethical issues 4
of ‘right to withdraw’ and ‘deception’.
Explain why the study by Piliavin et al. raised these ethical issues.
1 mark for description }
1 mark for link } × 2
Right to withdraw: participants can leave a study at any time (and remove
their data) / should not be pressurised to continue (if they don’t want to);
(generic)
Piliavin et al.’s participants could not withdraw as they did not know there
were observers in the subway carriage; (link)
Piliavin et al.’s participants could not withdraw as they believed the
victim/drunk/cane/ill man was real; (link)
Participants couldn’t leave the train/carriage/subway because they didn’t
know they were in a study = 2
Deception: participants should not be (deliberately) misinformed / lied to /
given false information; (generic)
Piliavin et al.’s participants were deceived about the role of the
stooges/victim/drunk/cane/ill man; (link)
The participants didn’t know the victims / drunk and ill men weren’t real = 2
© UCLES 2021 Page 5 of 15
Official mark scheme pages: 5 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-mj-22-q04
May/June 2021 · Paper 22 · Question 4 · 4 marks
4 In the study by Pepperberg (parrot learning) the sample was only one 4
parrot, Alex. This parrot could have differed from other parrots of the
same species.
Explain how two possible differences could have affected
Pepperberg’s study.
1 mark for difference + 1 mark for effect on study × 2
Alex could have been more intelligent;
Which would have made grey parrots seem that they could understand
concepts when they couldn’t;
Alex could have been less intelligent;
Which would have made grey parrots seem slower to understand concepts
than they really are;
Alex was kept in a laboratory / wasn’t in the wild;
Alex had already been studied (for years) / had heard a lot of human
speech;
So had experiences that would have made his responses different from wild
parrots;
So he might have been less frightened of shapes / more familiar with
different materials so perform better;
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 6 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-mj-22-q05
May/June 2021 · Paper 22 · Question 5 · 3 marks
5 The mean and the mode are measures of central tendency.
5(a) Explain why the mean could be a better measure of central tendency 2
than the mode.
1 mark for a brief/muddled explanation
2 marks for a clear/detailed explanation
The mean uses values whereas the mode only looks at frequency (2)
The mean uses the values of all of the data points but the mode doesn’t (1)
The mean uses all of the data (points) but the mode doesn’t (0)
The mean represents all the data, the mode doesn’t / the mean is more
representative (1)
The mean represents all the data, the mode only represents the frequency /
most common (2)
The mean uses (the values of) all the scores so considers extreme scores
(outliers) (1)
The mean uses (the values of) all the scores so considers extreme scores
(outliers) but mode does not consider these (2)
Description of how to calculate the mean = 0
The mean finds out the average = 0 [the mode finds a kind of average too]
© UCLES 2021 Page 6 of 15
5(b) Explain why a researcher may have to use the mode instead of the 1
mean.
1 mark for explanation
When data is nominal / is in categories / is only totals / comes from yes or
no (closed) questions / not on a continuous scale;
To reduce the influence of outliers;
© UCLES 2021 Page 7 of 15
Official mark scheme pages: 6, 7 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-mj-22-q06
May/June 2021 · Paper 22 · Question 6 · 6 marks
6 Describe participant observation and non-participant observation, 6
using any examples.
Definitions/detail: up to a maximum of 4 marks for each observational
technique.
Examples: maximum of 2 marks for each technique.
Examples can include examples from any studies (core studies, other
studies, candidate’s own studies).
Max 4 if no examples.
participant observation:
researcher watches as part of the ongoing activity; appears to be like the
participants in social role; (definition)
participants may or may not be aware of being observed / can be covert or
overt; (detail)
(often) allows more information from interactions; (detail)
Interaction can give greater insight into reasons for behaviours observed;
(detail)
Piliavin et al. – the observers appeared to be passengers; (core study
example)
Note: Piliavin et al.’s victims/models were not observing (so not examples of
participant observers)
If an observer joins in with children’s games to record their behaviour; (own
example)
Saavedra and Silverman: the researchers saw the boy performing the
in vivo button tasks; (core study example)
Note: Schachter and Singer’s stooges were not observers (so not an
example of participant observation)
non-participant observation:
observer not involved in situation being studied; uses camera / one-way
mirror / distanced from social group; (definition)
participants may or may not be aware of being observed / can be covert or
overt; (detail)
(often unobtrusive) so fewer demand characteristics; (detail)
Observer can be objective because not involved in the emotions of the
social situation of the participants; (detail)
Bandura et al. used a one-way mirror to observe the children’s aggression;
(core study example)
Milgram: observations were made through a one-way mirror; (core study
example)
Schachter and Singer’s participants were being observed through a one-
way mirror; (core study example)
© UCLES 2021 Page 8 of 15
Official mark scheme pages: 8 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-mj-22-q07
May/June 2021 · Paper 22 · Question 7 · 9 marks
7 Two friends, Zvi and Bill, are conducting a natural experiment. They
are collecting data by observing whether young or old people are more
likely to become frustrated when trying to get on a busy train.
7(a)(i) Suggest how the friends could operationalise their independent 1
variable.
1 mark for suggestion of operationalisation
40 and under, 41 and over;
(Young =) under 20, (old =) over 60;
‘young people and old people’ = 0 marks
7(a)(ii) For the way you suggested in (a)(i): 2
Explain one strength of operationalising the independent variable in
this way.
1 mark for explanation, 1 mark for detail
It would be easy to distinguish who was young and who was old;
because the categories are very different / people’s appearance changes a
lot between the two age groups;
Because people wouldn’t have to state their actual age;
so (more ethical because) less invasion of privacy;
‘under 20 and over 50 are easy to tell apart; so objective/reliable/valid’ = 2
‘operationalisation allows for replication’ = 0 [because generic, needs to
address ‘in this way’ in the question]
7(b) Explain what is meant by a ‘dependent variable’, using Zvi and Bill’s 2
study as an example.
1 mark for explanation
1 mark for link
The DV is the variable being measured; (explanation)
Frustration (e.g. as ‘pushing’); (link)
The DV is what changes under the influence of the IV; (explanation)
Frustration; (link)
© UCLES 2021 Page 9 of 15
7(c) The friends agree that they should collect data over several days but
have different plans for when they should do this.
7(c)(i) Zvi plans to collect data at the same time each day. 2
Explain one strength of Zvi’s plan.
1 mark for strength
1 mark for link
Collecting data at the same time will improve standardisation/reliability;
Because other variables that could affect frustration, such as how busy the
busy train is, will be constant;
It would control for variables such as how tired people are;
Making the findings more valid as this won’t mask the effect of age;
7(c)(ii) Bill plans to collect data over a range of different times each day. 2
Explain one strength of Bill’s plan.
1 mark for strength
1 mark for link
Collecting data at different times will increase validity;
by being sure that the only factor affecting frustration is age and not when
people travel (e.g. busy times or not);
Collecting data at different times will increase generalisability;
As participant variables might vary over the day, e.g. (only younger
passengers being) frustrated after work but not before;
To get a more varied sample / make results more generalisable / make
findings more representative;
E.g. to avoid bias due to factors other than age (e.g. work, travelling alone
or in pairs, time of travel);
© UCLES 2021 Page 10 of 15
Official mark scheme pages: 9, 10 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-mj-22-q08
May/June 2021 · Paper 22 · Question 8 · 8 marks
8 Jacy is conducting a laboratory experiment to investigate the effect of
eating chocolate on mood. She predicts that eating chocolate will
make people happier than not eating chocolate. She has 20
participants.
8(a) Explain why Jacy is able to make a causal prediction. 2
1 mark for explanation
1 mark for link
Because (she is conducting an experiment so) she can be certain that the IV
is the cause of changes in the DV;
And Jacy is measuring happiness, the DV, in IV conditions of chocolate or
none; (link)
In experiments confounding variables are controlled so the IV must be the
cause of changes in the DV;
In this case the only factor affecting mood should be the eating of chocolate;
(link)
Because she is doing an experiment not a correlation = 0 [because not an
explanation]
Because she is doing an experiment not a correlation so is controlling /
isolating variables not just measuring them = 1
8(b) Jacy gave each participant a number from 1 to 20. She has a hat which
contains cards that are numbered from 1 to 20. She takes 10 cards
from the hat and uses the 10 people with those numbers as her control
group. She uses the remaining 10 participants as her experimental
group.
8(b)(i) Name the process Jacy is using in this part of her study. 1
1 mark for naming random allocation / assignment / randomisation
(definitive)
Random = 0
Random sampling = 0
© UCLES 2021 Page 11 of 15
8(b)(ii) Explain one strength of this part of Jacy’s procedure. 3
1 mark for a brief/muddled strength of random allocation
2 marks for a clear/detailed generic strength of random allocation
3 marks for a clear/detailed and linked strength of random allocation
So no other factors / participant variables / individual differences could affect
the study = 1
So no other factors / participant variables / individual differences e.g. being
bad tempered affect mood = 2
By allocating people randomly between the two levels of the IV, different
(starting) moods should be spread evenly between the two conditions = 3
So people have an equal chance of being in the control group or
experimental group = 1
So people have an equal chance of being in the control group or
experimental group to even out individual differences = 2
So people in the sample have an equal chance of being in the control group
or the chocolate group to even out individual differences = 3
8(c) Explain the experimental design that Jacy is using. 2
1 mark for explanation of independent measures / independent groups
(does not have to be named)
1 mark for link
(An independent measures design is) where different participants perform in
each level of the IV;
Jacy has different participants in the control and chocolate groups /
participants either eat chocolate or do not;
Marks are for explanation. No marks if nothing other than the identification
of independent measures.
Independent = 0
Independent measures = 0
Independent groups = 0
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 11, 12 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-mj-22-q09
May/June 2021 · Paper 22 · Question 9 · 7 marks
9 Dr Lee is measuring two variables, tiredness and generosity, on scales
of 0 to 10. He finds a strong positive correlation between the two
variables.
9(a) Sketch a graph on the axes below using crosses to show the pattern of 4
Dr Lee’s results. You must label the axes.
1 mark for both ‘tiredness’ and ‘generosity’ as axis labels
1 mark for 0–10 on both axes (can just be 0 and 10)
1 mark for points/crosses in a positive correlation pattern
1 mark for line (of ‘best fit’) for a positive correlation
© UCLES 2021 Page 12 of 15
9(b) Write a null hypothesis for Dr Lee’s study. 1
1 mark for a null hypothesis
Any correlation/link/relationship between tiredness and generosity is due to
chance;
There will be no correlation/relationship/link between tiredness and
generosity;
Alternative hypotheses / Experimental hypotheses / reference to
‘differences’ / experimental nulls = 0
There will be no correlation/relationship/link between the variables = 0
There will be no correlation/relationship/link with generosity = 0
Any correlation with tiredness is due to chance = 0
9(c) Suggest one advantage of using correlations compared to 2
experiments.
1 mark for a brief/muddled advantage
2 marks for a clear/detailed advantage
Comparison to experiments does not have to be explicit, but this can add
detail
Correlations can be used to investigate variables that cannot be
manipulated;
e.g. because it would be unethical;
e.g. because it would be impractical;
but in an experiment this would be essential to create the IV / controls;
Correlations can investigate variables that cannot be manipulated, because
it would be unethical = 2
Correlations can find relationships so can suggest further research = 0
Correlations can find relationships so can suggest variables to study in
further research (whereas experiments must know these variables in
advance);
Correlations can find relationships so can suggest controls for further
studies (whereas experiments must know these controls in advance);
Correlations can find relationships so can suggest variables to study and
controls to make further experiments effective = 2
© UCLES 2021 Page 13 of 15
Official mark scheme pages: 12, 13 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-mj-22-q10
May/June 2021 · Paper 22 · Question 10 · 14 marks
10 Seth is planning a study to investigate the communication and
emotion in a family. The family consists of a mother, father,
grandmother and one son. They live in a remote house and do not
interact with other people often.
10(a) Describe how Seth could conduct a case study to investigate the 10
communication and emotion in this family.
Three majors for a case study are:
(a) technique used to collect data asked (e.g. two or more of interview,
observations, questionnaire e.g. multiple sessions, detailed)
(b) content e.g. questions about relationships and emotions (e.g.
open/closed questions, examples, observe relationships and emotions in
different combinations of the family)
(c) use of data e.g. identifying how data might be used, what sources will
give qualitative and quantitative data (e.g. how open questions will be
interpreted, how relationships and emotions will be analysed, triangulation
or how quantitative data will be scored/analysed/used)
The minors are:
where: location of participants when being studied (e.g. remote house)
Who: family who live in a remote house
Other details for replication:
• ethical issues
Other appropriate responses should also be credited.
Mark according to the levels of response criteria below:
Level 3 (8–10 marks)
• Response is described in sufficient detail to be replicable.
• Response may have a minor omission.
• Use of psychological terminology is accurate and comprehensive.
Level 2 (5–7 marks)
• Response is in some detail.
• Response has minor omission(s).
• Use of psychological terminology is accurate.
Level 1 (1–4 marks)
• Response is basic in detail.
• Response has major omission(s).
• If response is impossible to conduct max. 2.
• Use of psychological terminology is mainly accurate.
Level 0 (0 marks)
No response worthy of credit.
© UCLES 2021 Page 14 of 15
10(b) Identify one practical weakness/limitation with the procedure you have 4
described in your answer to part (a) and suggest how your study might
be done differently to overcome the problem.
Do not refer to ethics or sampling in your answer.
Answer will depend on problem identified.
Problems may, for example, be matters of:
Validity
• operationalisation
• situational / participant variables factors
Reliability
• inter-rater consistency
• intra-rater consistency.
This list is not exhaustive and other appropriate responses should also be
credited.
Marks Comment
3–4 Appropriate problem identified.
Appropriate solution is clearly described.
2 Appropriate problem identified.
plus
EITHER
Explanation of why it is a problem
OR
Ineffectual but possible solution described.
1 Appropriate problem identified.
Little or no justification.
0 No response worthy of credit
© UCLES 2021 Page 15 of 15
Official mark scheme pages: 14, 15 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-mj-23-q01
May/June 2021 · Paper 23 · Question 1 · 2 marks
1(a) State what is meant by the ‘aim’ of a study. 1
1 mark for explanation
it tells you the purpose of the investigation / what the study intends to find
out or show; (explanation)
1(b) Outline one aim from the study by Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans). 1
1 mark for aim
• to investigate whether models affect altruism / to record the time it takes
to help;
• to test whether race affects helping / to count numbers helping black or
white victims;
• to compare helping by males and females;
• to test whether ‘reason’ (ill/drunk) affects helping / to count numbers
helping ill or drunk victims;
• to test bystander effect / diffusion of responsibility
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 4 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-mj-23-q02
May/June 2021 · Paper 23 · Question 2 · 4 marks
2 The study by Canli et al. (brain scans and emotions) raised ethical 4
issues of ‘right to withdraw’ and ‘protection from harm’.
Explain why the study by Canli et al. raised these ethical issues.
1 mark for description + 1 mark for link x2
Right to withdraw: participants can leave a study at any time; for example if
they are uncomfortable or distressed; and remove their data; without loss of
payment; they should not be pressurised to continue;
Right to withdraw may not be apparent if the participant is unaware that they
are participating; and may suffer harm as a consequence;
Canli et al.’s participants could not easily withdraw from the fMRI machine
(as they are hard to get out of, e.g. if they became claustrophobic / because
their heads were held still by the bite bar); (link)
They were in a scanner; so couldn’t leave if they wanted; = 2
Protection from harm: a participant should not be exposed to any greater
physical or psychological risk than would be expected in their day-to-day
life;
Canli et al. used an fMRI machine which carries risks for people whose
bodies contain metal objects (and a participant might not have known this,
so have been at risk);
Canli et al. (deliberately) exposed participants to negative images, (which
may have been distressing); (link)
Canli et al. (apparently) did not use positive images afterwards to reverse
the potential mood change; (link)
They saw scary/unpleasant images; which could have cause harm; = 2
© UCLES 2021 Page 4 of 15
Official mark scheme pages: 4 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-mj-23-q03
May/June 2021 · Paper 23 · Question 3 · 4 marks
3 In the study by Laney et al. (false memory) random allocation was
used.
3(a) Explain what is meant by ‘random allocation’, using this study as an 2
example.
1 mark for definition, 2nd mark for link
Random allocation is a way to divide participants between levels of the
independent variable such that any participant has an equal chance of being
in any condition; (definition)
Laney’s participants were in the ‘love’ (asparagus) / false memory group or
the control group; (link)
Laney’s participants were in the ‘love’ (asparagus) / false memory group or
the control group by chance; 2
Participants are put in experimental or control group without bias = 0
(because could be stratified allocation)
3(b) Explain one strength of using random allocation in this study. 2
1 mark for strength, 1 mark for link
Random allocation reduces the effect of confounding variables such as
individual differences; (strength)
The participants could have really loved asparagus or not (so would be
spread between the groups); (link)
The participants could have differed in gullibility to false memories (so would
even across groups); (link)
© UCLES 2021 Page 5 of 15
Official mark scheme pages: 5 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-mj-23-q04
May/June 2021 · Paper 23 · Question 4 · 2 marks
4 In the study by Bandura et al. (aggression), children were shown a 2
room full of attractive toys to play with but were told they were for
other children.
Explain one of the two reasons Bandura et al. gave for doing this.
1 mark for a brief muddled explanation, 2 marks for a clear/detailed
explanation
From the paper:
To make them angry/jealous/annoyed/aroused;
So they were all equally likely to be aggressive;
So they were likely to be aggressive in the next room;
To ensure the children in the nonaggressive condition were feeling
aggressive = 1
To ensure the low(ered) aggression children could be demonstrated in the
nonaggressive condition = 2
To ensure they were likely to be aggressive/aroused = 1
To ensure performance of aggressive behaviour was not reduced by having
watched aggression / catharsis = 2
© UCLES 2021 Page 6 of 15
Official mark scheme pages: 6 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-mj-23-q05
May/June 2021 · Paper 23 · Question 5 · 4 marks
5 Two studies are using different methods to investigate the topic of
dreaming in deaf people:
• Dr Kahlil is studying Joseph, who is deaf and has dreams about
people using sign language.
• Dr Hart is studying six deaf people and six hearing people to
compare the length of their REM periods.
5(a) Explain which one of these investigations is a case study. 2
1 mark for reasoning (no mark for just stating ‘Dr Kahlil’)
1 mark for link/detail/comparison
The first study / Dr Kahlil’s because he is studying one person; (reasoning)
He only studies Joseph; (link)
The first study / Dr Kahlil’s because he is studying in depth; (reasoning)
He studies sign language dreams in detail; (link)
Dr Kahlil’s because he studies one participant whereas Dr Hart compares
two groups = 2 (comparison)
5(b) Explain one strength of using a case study to investigate this topic. 2
1 mark for strength of a case study
2 mark strength of a case study linked to topic (not simply to ‘Joseph’)
Collects in depth data / reasons why;
So can better understand deaf people’s / sign language dreams;
Case studies produce detailed data about rare cases = 1 mark (generic
strength)
Analysing the dreams of deaf people may be difficult because they may
dream differently from hearing people and in a case study care can be taken
to ensure the researcher’s interpretation matches what the participant
meant = 2 marks (linked strength)
Case studies can use several different techniques / triangulation (raising
validity) = 1 mark (generic strength)
Case studies of deaf people can use different techniques such as interviews
(in sign language), written dream diaries and EEGs which will be helpful to
ensure interpretations are valid = 2 marks (linked strength)
More data/results = 0 [case studies gain in depth data not ‘more data’]
© UCLES 2021 Page 7 of 15
Official mark scheme pages: 7 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-mj-23-q06
May/June 2021 · Paper 23 · Question 6 · 6 marks
6 Describe positive correlations and negative correlations, using any 6
examples.
1 mark for what a correlation is – looks for relationships / links between
variables
1 mark for each definition, up to a maximum of 2, for each type of
correlation
1 mark for each example that is linked to one issue, up to a maximum of 2,
for each type of correlation.
Examples can be from any studies (core studies, other studies, candidate’s
own psychological studies).
Max 4 if no examples
Max 5 if only positive / only negative
positive correlation:
where two variables increase in the same direction / as one
variable increases the other does too / directly proportional;
has a coefficient between 0 and +1; (definition)
Dement and Kleitman found a positive correlation between dream duration
and dream narrative word count;
Canli et al. found a left amygdala positive correlation: the greater the
activation, the stronger the memory;
Piliavin et al. proposed a positive correlation between number of bystanders
‘diffusion of responsibility’: the greater the number of bystanders, the greater
the diffusion of responsibility;
negative correlation:
where two variables increase in opposite directions / as
one variable increases the other decreases / inversely
proportional;
has a coefficient between 0 and –1; (definition)
Baron-Cohen et al. found a negative/inverse correlation
between eyes test score and AQ;
Canli et al. found a negative correlation: the greater the emotional intensity
(of the stimulus) the weaker the memory;
Piliavin et al’s. proposed correlation between number of bystanders and
‘diffusion of responsibility’ can be described as a negative correlation: the
more bystanders there are, the lower the speed/frequency of helping;
Other ideas might be:
Positive:
time spent watching TV and aggression;
Negative:
hours of sleep and ability to concentrate;
time spent in therapy and level of symptoms;
© UCLES 2021 Page 8 of 15
Official mark scheme pages: 8 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-mj-23-q07
May/June 2021 · Paper 23 · Question 7 · 8 marks
7 Jane is planning a laboratory experiment with two groups of
participants. One group speaks one language fluently and the other
group speaks two or more languages fluently. Jane thinks this may
affect her dependent variable of how well they learn ‘nonsense’ words.
These are words that read like real words but have no meaning.
7(a) Jane has two possible ways to measure her dependent variable:
• by timing how quickly the participant can recall 10 nonsense
words correctly
• by counting the number of spelling errors made when recalling
10 nonsense words.
7(a)(i) Explain one strength of one of Jane’s measures of her dependent 2
variable.
1 mark for justification of candidate’s choice of measure (no mark for just
choosing one of the measures)
1 mark for link / context
Timing / number of spelling errors is objective/valid/quantitative; (strength)
i.e. comparisons of speed of response to / errors in nonsense words
between one and two-language groups; (link)
Timing / counting errors is objective; (strength)
So Jane can’t make be biased in her judgments (of time); (link)
Jane so she must be testing what she claimed to;
Because they’ve not learned the words if they can’t spell them; (link)
7(a)(ii) Explain one weakness of the measure of the dependent variable that 2
you have referred to in (a)(i).
1 mark for a brief muddled weakness
2 marks for a clear/detailed weakness
how quickly the participant can respond:
timing may not be valid as a measure because people learn words at
different speeds;
so the times would depend on individual differences / participant variables
not number of languages spoken;
number of spelling errors:
number of errors may not be valid as a measure because people differ in
spelling ability anyway;
so the errors would depend on individual differences / participant variables
not number of languages spoken;
© UCLES 2021 Page 9 of 15
7(b) Suggest one way that Jane can operationalise ‘speaking a language 2
fluently’.
1 mark for a brief muddled operationalisation
2 marks for a clear/detailed operationalisation
Speaking easily and without many pauses = 2
Being able to understand = 1
Being able to understand well enough to deal with a native speaker in
conversation = 2
Coping with everyday life in that language = 1
Coping with everyday life in that language, such as being able to buy food /
work / study / understand a film = 2
Having a qualification = 1
e.g. British Council Certificate / IGCSE English
7(c) Jane used an independent measures design in her experiment. 2
Explain one reason why it would have been better for Jane to use a
matched pairs design than an independent measures design.
1 mark for reason (comparison may be explicit or implicit)
1 mark for link (e.g. variable relevant to ability to learn/recall words or speed
of response)
Matched pairs designs reduce/eliminate participant variables; (reason)
In Jane’s experiment these might be reaction time / age / intelligence (which
could affect ability to learn nonsense words / respond quickly/accurately to
questions); (link)
© UCLES 2021 Page 10 of 15
Official mark scheme pages: 9, 10 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-mj-23-q08
May/June 2021 · Paper 23 · Question 8 · 8 marks
8 Kofi is planning an observation of aggression in sport. He will attend a
range of different sporting events to record aggressive behaviour. At
first, Kofi is not certain what kinds of behaviours he will see.
Credit reference to players or spectators throughout Q8.
8(a)(i) Explain why, at first, Kofi uses an unstructured observation. 2
1 mark for explanation
1 mark for link
as he wouldn’t know which behaviour categories to use = 1
to decide which behaviours to choose (to observe next) = 1
to decide which aggressive behaviours to choose (to observe next) = 2
to decide which behaviours to choose for each sport = 2
Because he can record all the different behaviours = 1 (generic explanation)
as he doesn’t know what aggressive behaviours he will see / will see in
different sports; (link)
8(a)(ii) After watching different sports, Kofi can now use a structured 2
observation.
Explain one strength of using a structured observation in Kofi’s study.
1 mark for strength
1 mark for link
He would have an objective / reliable list of the different behaviours (in
advance); (generic strength)
this is important so he can concentrate on the aggression he sees and just
tally so he observes better; (link)
He would have a specific list of the different aggressive behaviours; (link)
This is better as he can focus on observing and check listing (rather than
writing details); (generic strength)
The list of behaviours makes comparison easier; (generic strength)
So he can compare (the same thing about) different sports; (link)
© UCLES 2021 Page 11 of 15
8(b) Kofi has decided to be a covert observer.
8(b)(i) Suggest one strength of being a covert observer in this study. 2
1 mark for strength
1 mark for link
His role as an observer would not be apparent / he would be hidden/
disguised; (strength)
and other spectators could limit their aggression (or exaggerate it) if they
thought they were being observed (making the results less valid); (link)
Participants won’t change behaviour / respond to demand characteristics /
show social desirability; (strength)
So their aggression levels will be normal; (link)
8(b)(ii) Suggest one weakness of being a covert observer in this study. 2
1 mark for weakness
1 mark for link
Keeping your role hidden might make it hard to see; (weakness)
So he may not be able to access all the aggression that is happening
(making the results less valid); (link)
No consent / participants are deceived / denied right to withdraw / potential
harm; (weakness)
The players / spectators unaware of observation / need right to avoid being
observed / might be distressed if they find out they have been watched;
(link)
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 11, 12 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-mj-23-q09
May/June 2021 · Paper 23 · Question 9 · 8 marks
9 Naia wants to interview young people about how environmental issues
make them feel. She wants to collect data about emotional responses
to issues such as recycling. She has decided to conduct a structured
interview.
9(a) Suggest one open question Naia could ask about emotions. 1
1 mark for open question
Describe how do environmental issues make you feel = 1
Do you recycle or not, and why? = 0
9(b) Suggest one closed question Naia could ask about emotions. 1
1 mark for closed question with answer choices
When you see litter / waste how upset do you feel on a scale of 1 (not at all)
to 10 (very)? = 1
Which of the following do you recycle: paper, plastic, metal, glass? = 0
© UCLES 2021 Page 12 of 15
9(c) Suggest one weakness of using a structured interview in Naia’s study. 2
1 mark for weakness 1 mark for link
It means she cannot ask questions to follow up on a participant’s answer;
(weakness)
Her understanding of their emotions will be incomplete if she needed more
information from them; (link)
She couldn’t explore individual interests in environmental issues; (link)
9(d) One participant says that Naia’s questions are too personal. 4
Explain two ethical guidelines that are important to overcome this
problem.
Do not refer to protection from harm or right to withdraw in your
answer.
1 mark for ethical problem + 1 mark for link/detail/solution x2
No mark for simply naming guideline/issue
Informed consent: participants must understand the aims/procedure;
and agree to the aim / procedure (but they didn’t);
Naia’s participants expected questions on environmental issues and
emotions, which isn’t very personal; (link)
participants should understand and agree to the aim/procedure but perhaps
they weren’t brief;
Naia should have told them the questions included ones on their emotions,
which can be personal; (link)
Debriefing: participants should be returned to their previous state after
participation, but they weren’t;
Naia’s participants were still upset by the questions about environmental
issues and emotions; (link)
Privacy: participants must not feel that personal thoughts are being invaded
so the questions must change;
Naia could ask what participants think other people are doing / not doing
about environmental issues; (link)
e.g. ask ‘do you disapprove when your neighbours don’t separate their
rubbish for recycling? (link)
© UCLES 2021 Page 13 of 15
Official mark scheme pages: 12, 13 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-mj-23-q10
May/June 2021 · Paper 23 · Question 10 · 14 marks
10 Riley notices that children at his school appear to be nicer to each
other at morning play time than at afternoon play time.
10(a) Describe how Riley could conduct a natural experiment to investigate 10
when the children are nicer.
Three majors for a natural experiment are:
(a) What: – IV: morning and afternoon play time (e.g. exact times, how
many days, experimental design)
(b) How: – DV: levels of kindness (e.g. behavioural categories, sampling
method)
(c) Where: – school (playground, classroom, field, location of observer,
participant observer, e.g. in play)
The minors are:
who: school-aged children
how: controls
Other details for replication:
sampling technique
sample size
ethical issues re. children
description of how data will analysed, e.g. use of averages / bar charts
Other appropriate responses should also be credited.
Mark according to the levels of response criteria below:
Level 3 (8–10 marks)
• Response is described in sufficient detail to be replicable.
• Response may have a minor omission.
• Use of psychological terminology is accurate and comprehensive.
Level 2 (5–7 marks)
• Response is in some detail.
• Response has minor omission(s).
• Use of psychological terminology is accurate.
Level 1 (1–4 marks)
• Response is basic in detail.
• Response has major omission(s).
• If response is impossible to conduct max. 2.
• Use of psychological terminology is mainly accurate.
Level 0 (0 marks)
No response worthy of credit.
© UCLES 2021 Page 14 of 15
10(b) Identify one practical weakness/limitation with the procedure you have 4
described in your answer to part (a) and suggest how your study
might be done differently to overcome the problem.
Do not refer to ethics or sampling in your answer.
Answer will depend on problem identified.
Problems may, for example, be matters of:
Validity
• operationalisation
• situational / participant variables factors
Reliability
• inter-rater consistency
• intra-rater consistency
This list is not exhaustive and other appropriate responses should also be
credited.
Marks comment
3–4 Appropriate problem identified.
Appropriate solution is clearly described.
2 Appropriate problem identified.
plus
EITHER
Explanation of why it is a problem
OR
Ineffectual but possible solution described.
1 Appropriate problem identified.
Little or no justification.
0 No response worthy of credit
© UCLES 2021 Page 15 of 15
Official mark scheme pages: 14, 15 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-on-21-q01
Oct/Nov 2021 · Paper 21 · Question 1 · 4 marks
1(a) Explain why a questionnaire is a self-report method, including an 2
example from a core study in your answer.
1 mark for explanation (that the data comes directly from the participant /
e.g. as participant writes)
1 mark for example
Reference for core study is not sufficient, must give example of
questionnaire by title or description
Reference for core study must match example identified
written questions to collect data from participants; (explanation)
Self reports collect data directly from the participant; (explanation)
E.g. Baron-Cohen et al. used the AQ/IQ tests;
E.g. Schachter and Singer gave participants questionnaires to assess
mood;
E.g. Laney et al gave the restaurant questionnaire / FHI / FPQ / memory or
belief questionnaire (MBQ);
1(b) Explain one strength of using questionnaires in research. 2
1 mark for a brief/muddled strength
2 marks for a clear/detailed strength
Participants are alone so they are less likely to give socially desirable
answers; (brief) which increases the validity of the results; (2nd mark, detail)
So the results are more likely to be honest/true answers; (detail)
Many participants can answer at the same time, so a big sample can be
obtained; (brief) Which increases the generalisability of the results; (2nd
mark, detail) So the results will be based on and apply to a greater variety of
people; (detail)
Each participant is asked exactly the same questions, which increases
standardisation; (brief)
This makes the study more valid/makes analysis easier/comparison
possible; (2nd mark, detail)
Can collect data about thoughts/feelings which cannot be observed;
(brief)
E.g. could observe someone frowning but a questionnaire could ask if they
were cross or puzzled; (2nd mark, detail)
Easier for participants to stop answering/withdraw; (brief)
Because they are not with an interviewer; (2nd mark, detail)
They are (more) valid (than interviews) = 0 cheap/easy = 0
© UCLES 2021 Page 4 of 15
Official mark scheme pages: 4 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-on-21-q02
Oct/Nov 2021 · Paper 21 · Question 2 · 2 marks
2 Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreams) compared dream duration 2
estimates for 5-min and 15-min REM periods.
Write a null hypothesis for this part of the study.
1 mark for a muddled (experimental) null hypothesis
2 marks for a clear (experimental) null hypothesis
The hypothesis does not have to be operationalised for 2 marks
Any difference between estimates of dream duration for different length
REM periods is due to chance = 2
There will be no difference between dream duration estimates for different
length REM periods = 2
Dream duration for different length REM periods will be the same = 1
There will be no difference between dream duration and length of REM
period = 0
Any correlation between estimates of dream duration for different length
REM periods is due to chance = 0
There will be no correlation between dream duration estimates and length of
REM period = 0
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 5 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-on-21-q03
Oct/Nov 2021 · Paper 21 · Question 3 · 4 marks
3 In the study by Bandura et al. (aggression), inter-rater reliability was
measured.
3(a) Outline what is meant by ‘inter-rater reliability’. 1
1 mark for outlining
The extent to which two raters/researchers (coding the same data) produce
the same records;
When multiple raters are consistent (with each other);
© UCLES 2021 Page 5 of 15
3(b) Describe one part of the procedure that improved inter-rater reliability 3
in this study.
1 mark for description (of procedure that increased inter-rater reliability)
1 mark for detail
1 mark for link
Using scales that were objective; (description)
four 5-point rating scales; (description) used in initial assessment of
aggression; (detail/link) by experimenter and nursery school teachers
(detail/link)
the observation scales were piloted; and the scoring system amended;
(description + detail)
During the pretest…subjects imitated…components of the model's behavior
but not the complete act, or they directed the imitative aggressive response
to some object other than…Bobo… scored…as partially imitative behavior;
(link)
The behaviour categories were clearly/operationally defined; (description)
Mallet aggression: strikes objects other than Bobo aggressively with mallet;
Sits on Bobo: lays Bobo on its side and sits on it but does not aggress
toward it; Punches Bobo: strikes, slaps, or pushes doll aggressively;
Nonimitative physical and verbal aggression: physically aggressive acts
directed toward objects other than Bobo; hostile remarks except for those in
the verbal imitation category e.g. "Shoot the Bobo," "Cut him," "Stupid ball,"
"Knock over people," "Horses fighting, biting"; Aggressive gun play: shoots
darts or aims the guns and fires imaginary shots at objects in the room;
(detail + link)
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 5, 6 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-on-21-q04
Oct/Nov 2021 · Paper 21 · Question 4 · 4 marks
4 In the study by Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans), observers counted 4
the total number of victims helped. The results were that 62 ‘cane’
victims and 19 ‘drunk’ victims were helped.
Draw a bar chart of these results. You must label the axes.
1 mark; units (number of helpers/number of
victims helped) on y-axis
1 mark: number of victims helped (for frequency)
on y-axis
1 mark: ‘type of victim’ on x-axis
1 mark: ‘cane’/’ill’ and ‘drunk’ as categories on x-
axis
1 mark: correct plotting of 19 drunk and 62 cane
Must have separate bars for full 4 marks
type of victim
© UCLES 2021 Page 6 of 15
Official mark scheme pages: 6 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-on-21-q05
Oct/Nov 2021 · Paper 21 · Question 5 · 2 marks
5 In a study on memory, participants had to recall a story. The 2
researchers measured memory by rating the accuracy of each
participant’s recall of the story on a 10-point scale.
Suggest one weakness of using this scale to measure memory.
1 mark for generic weakness
2 marks for linked weakness of this rating scale
Rating scales can be subjective; (generic weakness)
e.g. one researcher’s view of ‘9’ for recall may demand better recall than
another researcher’s ‘9’; (link)
10 points does not give enough discrimination (between memory ability);
(generic weakness)
A participant’s recall might need to be judged as in between two points;
(link)
The participants may lie = 0 (NAQ)
The participants may not understand the story = 0 (NAQ)
Responses about other aspects of the study, e.g. the use of a story as a test
of memory = 0 [irrl]
Scale is quantitative and qualitative data is needed = 0 [NAQ]
Scale is quantitative and qualitative data is needed to know why only some
of the story was recalled = 0 [NAQ]
© UCLES 2021 Page 7 of 15
Official mark scheme pages: 7 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-on-21-q06
Oct/Nov 2021 · Paper 21 · Question 6 · 6 marks
6 Describe laboratory experiments and field experiments, using any 6
examples.
1 mark for each definition, up to a maximum of 4, for each type of
experiment.
1 mark for each example that is linked to one issue, up to a maximum of 2,
for each type of experiment.
Examples can include examples from any studies (core studies, other
studies, candidate’s own studies).
Max 4 if only about one type of experiment
Laboratory experiment:
has (manipulated) IV and (measured) DV; (definition)
happens in an artificial environment; (definition)
So there can be many controls; (definition)
Canli et al.: randomised the order of the pictures, thus controlling for
familiarity of type;
Canli et al.: controlled for participant concentration by having a fixation
cross;
Dement and Kleitman: controlled for factors affecting sleep as participants
told not to drink alcohol/caffeine;
Schachter and Singer: controlled the stooges’ behaviours as they were
scripted;
Andrade: controls also given paper and pencil; all doodling condition given
sheets to constrain doodling;
Baron-Cohen et al.: access to a glossary controlled for understanding of the
words;
Laney et al.: controlled for processing of feedback by giving additional
questions (imagine the setting);
Yamamoto et al.: same tool familiarisation process;
Pepperberg: controlled for familiarity of trainer during testing;
Bandura et al.: IV was gender of child / aggressive or non-aggressive model
and DV was aggression;
Field experiment:
has (manipulated) IV and (measured) DV; (definition)
happens in the normal environment for the activity being investigated;
(definition)
So there can be some/few controls; (definition)
Piliavin et al. changed the stooge/victim (cane or drunk);
Piliavin et al. measured the number of helpers/speed of helping;
Piliavin et al. controlled the actions/clothing of the stooge;
© UCLES 2021 Page 8 of 15
Official mark scheme pages: 8 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-on-21-q07
Oct/Nov 2021 · Paper 21 · Question 7 · 6 marks
7 Bruce is planning a case study of a famous woman known worldwide
for her helpfulness.
7(a) Explain one strength of the case study research method. 2
1 mark for identifying a strength
1 mark for detail (can be linked)
One person is generally chosen for some special characteristic; (ID)
e.g. a rare condition so something can be investigated that it would be
impossible to study otherwise; (detail)
Can study in depth/detail; (ID)
detailed data means that complex issues can be explored (providing a
much richer understanding) / which is better than just recording a single DV
in an experiment; (detail)
© UCLES 2021 Page 9 of 15
7(b) Explain two weaknesses of the case study research method, using 4
Bruce’s study as an example.
1 mark for weakness }
1 mark for link } ×2
Bruce may interpret her comments differently than another researcher/may
interpret subjectively; (weakness)
Bruce’s personal viewpoint, is that she is exceptionally helpful, so will
interpret data this way; (weakness + link)
The woman Bruce is studying is exceptionally helpful, so his findings won’t
apply to normal helping; (link)
So low generalisability; (weakness: 2nd mark only)
Bruce believes she is helpful, so will interpret his results that way;
(weakness + link)
So low reliability; (weakness: 2nd mark only)
Difficult to keep confidentiality (if case is rare); (weakness)
She will be hard to disguise as famous; (link)
Risk of invading privacy as study is in-depth / due to familiarity with
researcher; (weakness)
As she is famous the researcher may already know things about her so the
questions may be too personal; (link)
As she is famous there may be rumours about her so she may be
embarrassed by questions; (link)
Case studies are overt so she may be affected by social desirability;
(weakness)
And pretend to be even more helpful to look good to Bruce; (link)
She is only one person (not representative of the population) so low
generalisability; (weakness without link)
Case studies are hard to replicate; (weakness without link)
Low generalisability/validity/reliability/objectivity = 0 [if only term]
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 9, 10 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-on-21-q08
Oct/Nov 2021 · Paper 21 · Question 8 · 8 marks
8 Nola is investigating whether there is a correlation between hours of
sleep and how much a person argues. She thinks that people who
sleep less may argue more. Her friend Tim is making suggestions
about her procedure.
8(a) Nola and Tim have different ideas for recording participants’ hours of
sleep per night:
© UCLES 2021 Page 10 of 15
8(a)(i) Suggest one ethical reason why Nola’s idea is better than Tim’s idea. 2
1 mark for an unlinked or brief suggestion about ethics,
2 marks for a clear and linked suggestion about ethics
Sleeping at home gives better privacy; (brief)
Will be alone to sleep at home; (link)
Sleeping at home is more ethical because participants might find being in a
strange place / knowing there are researchers around distressing so sleep
poorly / which is harmful; (clear and linked) = 2 marks
8(a)(ii) Suggest one practical reason why Nola’s idea is better than Tim’s idea, 2
other than avoiding the need to use a laboratory.
1 mark for an unlinked or brief practical suggestion
2 marks for a clear and linked practical suggestion
Sleeping at home is higher in (ecological) validity / They will behave more
naturally / higher mundane realism; (brief)
Sleep at home has more ecological validity; sleep time will be typical / likely
to show correlation to arguing if there is one; (clear, linked)
8(a)(iii) Suggest one practical reason why Tim’s idea is better than Nola’s idea. 2
1 mark for an unlinked or brief practical suggestion
2 marks for a clear and linked practical suggestion
Timing sleep at home is hard to do / Timing sleeping in a lab is easier to do;
(brief)
Lab is more standardised/controlled; (brief)
e.g. people at home might get angry because of other people; (link)
Hard to time sleep at home; participant might make errors / lie / not know
when they fell asleep / awoken in night; (clear and linked)
8(b) Nola finds the correlation she expected, that people who sleep less 2
argue more.
Explain why Nola cannot know whether sleeping less causes people to
argue more.
1 mark for a generic explanation
1 mark for a link
It’s a correlation so she cannot judge causation; (generic)
It’s a correlation so she cannot judge whether sleep deprivation is what
causes argumentativeness, it could be that argumentative people do not
sleep as well; (explanation and link = 2)
She is only considering two factors/there might be a third factor; e.g. stress/
work/illness; (generic then link = 2)
© UCLES 2021 Page 11 of 15
Official mark scheme pages: 10, 11 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-on-21-q09
Oct/Nov 2021 · Paper 21 · Question 9 · 10 marks
9 Naomi is designing an observation of helping behaviour at an entrance
to a library that has a door which is difficult to open She intends to
observe people carrying many books and will record the gender of
each person who helps to open the door.
9(a) Naomi could either be a participant observer or a non-participant
observer.
9(a)(i) Suggest one advantage of her being a participant observer. 2
1 mark for advantage
1 mark for link
She would be able to be very close; (advantage)
So could see or hear whether the book-carrier / library user / stooge
solicited the helping; (link)
Being involved means she won’t affect the participants’ behaviour;
(advantage)
If she was an onlooker who wasn’t involved, people might feel they have to
help; (link)
9(a)(ii) Suggest one advantage of her being a non-participant observer. 2
1 mark for advantage
1 mark for link
If she wasn’t involved she would be more objective; (advantage)
Because if she was involved she might see ‘helping’ that didn’t really exist;
(link)
Reference to covert/hidden is irrelevant
9(b) Explain the type of data Naomi is collecting. 2
1 mark for identifying quantitative
1 mark for justification [mark is independent of correct identification]
Quantitative;
Because they can be male or female helpers; (justification)
Because she is counting the number of each gender helper; (justification)
Counting helping; (justification)
if someone held the door open or not; (justification)
The total times they helped; (justification)
Because it is the number of each gender; (justification)
if someone held the door open = 0 (not quantitative)
© UCLES 2021 Page 12 of 15
9(c) Situational variables could affect Naomi’s results.
9(c)(i) State what is meant by a ‘situational variable’. 1
1 mark for definition
a confounding variable that is due to the influence of the environment;
something about the environment/setting that affects the DV other than the
IV;
uncontrolled variable that is due to the situation = 0 [REP]
9(c)(ii) Suggest how one situational variable could affect Naomi’s results. 3
1 mark for situational variable
2 further marks for effect on results (likely to be linked but do not have to be)
If the library is busy (or not); (situational variable)
Whether it is the start/end of the day; (situational variable)
What the weather is like / if it is raining; (situational variable)
If the library is busy; people may be more likely to help; because they see
other people helping / not because of gender;
If it is the start of the day; people may help more; because they haven’t
been at work yet / not because of gender;
If it is raining; people may be less likely to help; because they don’t want to
get wet / not because of gender;
If it is raining; people may be less likely to help; which lowers validity;
© UCLES 2021 Page 13 of 15
Official mark scheme pages: 12, 13 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-on-21-q10
Oct/Nov 2021 · Paper 21 · Question 10 · 14 marks
10 Brendan is planning to use a semi-structured interview in a study
about road users. He intends to use a sample of people who are
walking (pedestrians). Brendan will investigate the pedestrians’
feelings, thoughts and actions towards other road users, e.g. other
pedestrians, cyclists and drivers.
10(a) Describe how Brendan could conduct a study using a semi-structured 10
interview to investigate participants’ feelings, thoughts and actions
towards other road users.
Three majors for a semi-structured interview are:
a content of questions asked (topics, examples: feelings, thoughts,
actions)
b interview structure detail (both fixed and variable questions,
writing/recording answers, fillers)
c style of questions asked (open, closed, correct example for each)
The minors are:
where – location of participants when being interviewed
who – participants (people who are road users)
Other details for replication:
• lie questions
• filler questions
• sampling technique
• sample size
• description of how data will analysed, e.g. use of averages/bar charts
• ethical issues
Other appropriate responses should also be credited.
Mark according to the levels of response criteria below:
Level 3 (8–10 marks)
• Response is described in sufficient detail to be replicable.
• Response may have a minor omission.
• Use of psychological terminology is accurate and comprehensive.
Level 2 (5–7 marks)
• Response is in some detail.
• Response has minor omission(s).
• Use of psychological terminology is accurate.
Level 1 (1–4 marks)
• Response is basic in detail.
• Response has major omission(s).
• If response is impossible to conduct max. 2.
• Use of psychological terminology is mainly accurate.
Level 0 (0 marks)
No response worthy of credit.
© UCLES 2021 Page 14 of 15
10(b) Identify one practical weakness/limitation with the procedure you have 4
described in your answer to part (a) and suggest how your study might
be done differently to overcome the problem.
Do not refer to ethics or sampling in your answer.
Answer will depend on problem identified.
Problems may, for example, be matters of:
Validity
• operationalisation
• situational/participant variables factors
Reliability
• inter-rater consistency
• intra-rater consistency.
This list is not exhaustive and other appropriate responses should also be
credited.
Marks Comment
3–4 Appropriate problem identified.
Appropriate solution is clearly described.
2 Appropriate problem identified.
plus
EITHER
Explanation of why it is a problem
OR
Ineffectual but possible solution described.
1 Appropriate problem identified.
Little or no justification.
0 No response worthy of credit
© UCLES 2021 Page 15 of 15
Official mark scheme pages: 14, 15 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-on-22-q01
Oct/Nov 2021 · Paper 22 · Question 1 · 5 marks
1 From the study by Schachter and Singer (two factors in emotion):
1(a) Identify the sampling technique used in this study. 1
1 mark for identification of volunteer (sampling) (definitive)
1(b) Explain how this sampling technique was used in this study. 2
1 mark per point × 2
Participants were taken from a subject pool / who volunteered to be
participants in studies;
of Minnesota / university (introductory psychology course) students;
and gained two extra points in their final exam (for every hour they spent in
a study);
1(c) One ethical strength of this study was that health checks were done. 2
Explain why this is an ethical strength.
1 mark for identifying strength
1 mark for detail
Avoided harm / avoided risks to participants; (strength)
So they would not be harmed by the injection / the effects of adrenaline;
(detail)
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 4 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-on-22-q02
Oct/Nov 2021 · Paper 22 · Question 2 · 3 marks
2 From the study by Bandura et al. (aggression):
2(a) Identify the sample and the population in this study, using the 1
following information:
The findings of this study on 72 children were generalised to suggest
that all children learn aggression through observation.
1 mark for identifying both sample and population from the stem
Sample = 72 (children)
Population = (all) children
© UCLES 2021 Page 4 of 13
2(b) Explain one reason why generalisations should not be made from the 2
72 participants in this study, other than because of their age.
1 mark for identifying reason
1 mark for linked detail
The sample was not representative (e.g. all children from same
background); (reason)
from one nursery; (linked detail)
Only children from Stanford/a university; (reason/detail)
(Stanford / a university has) predominantly people from wealthy / middle
class / high IQ families; (linked detail)
There were lots of conditions/levels of the IV; (reason)
So only 6 children per condition/level of the IV (which isn’t many); (linked
detail)
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 4, 5 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-on-22-q03
Oct/Nov 2021 · Paper 22 · Question 3 · 3 marks
3 In a study investigating the emotions associated with birthdays,
qualitative and quantitative data are being collected. A possible
problem with some of this data is subjectivity.
3(a) State what is meant by ‘subjectivity’. 1
1 mark for definition
(The effect of) a personal viewpoint (on data collection);
The effect of the researcher’s feelings/beliefs/experiences on data collection
/ interpretation;
3(b) Suggest one way that qualitative data could be collected for this study. 2
1 mark for qualitative way
1 mark for detail linked to emotions and birthdays (e.g. questions – must be
open).
questionnaire; (way)
asking questions such as ‘Describe how you feel on your birthday’; (link)
interview; (way)
asking questions such as ‘Explain why you feel happy at other people’s
birthday parties’; (link)
using open questions; (way)
e.g. ‘Tell me about the emotions you experience on your friend’s last
birthday’; (link)
© UCLES 2021 Page 5 of 13
Official mark scheme pages: 5 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-on-22-q04
Oct/Nov 2021 · Paper 22 · Question 4 · 2 marks
4 In the study by Baron-Cohen et al. (eyes test), standard deviations 2
were calculated on the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ) scores and are
shown in Table 4.1.
AS/HFA IQ-matched
group group
standard deviation of AQ scores 6.0 2.9
Explain what the information in Table 4.1 indicates about the results of
these two groups.
1 mark for explanation of standard deviation
1 mark for link
The bigger the standard deviation, the more spread out the scores in the
data set (are around the mean); (explanation) ORA
So the AS/HFA group were more variable in their AQ scores than the IQ
matched group; (link) ORA
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 6 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-on-22-q05
Oct/Nov 2021 · Paper 22 · Question 5 · 3 marks
5 Explain what is meant by ‘operationalisation’ in relation to the 3
dependent variable and independent variable, using the study by
Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans).
1 mark for definition
2 marks for links
Operationalisation means clearly defining a variable; (definition)
Operationalisation when variables are defined so that they can be
accurately manipulated/measured/replicated; (definition)
Piliavin et al. defined the IV e.g. the ‘type’ of victim by what they carried, a
bottle in a bag or a cane; (link)
e.g. the model present or absent; (link)
And spontaneous helping / the DV as intervening to help before the model
did; (link)
© UCLES 2021 Page 6 of 13
Official mark scheme pages: 6 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-on-22-q06
Oct/Nov 2021 · Paper 22 · Question 6 · 6 marks
6 Describe reliability and validity, using any examples. 6
1 mark for each definition/detail, up to a maximum of 4, for each issue.
1 mark for each example that is linked to one issue, up to a maximum of 2,
for each issue.
Examples can include examples from any studies (core studies, other
studies, candidate’s own studies).
Reliability: is the consistency of a procedure, task or measure; (definition)
i.e. whether it produces the same results with the same people each time it
is used; (definition)
(Different types of reliability e.g.) inter-rater reliability which is how similarly
two researchers record the same results;
And intra-rater reliability, whether one researcher is consistent over time;
Test-retest measures the reliability of a test or instrument over time by
checking that two tests the same / similar data produce similar results;
Split-half measures the reliability of items within a test by looking at whether
half the test produces similar results to the other half;
Bandura et al.’s study had high reliability because they all used the same
scales;
Bandura et al.’s observers had a high inter-rater reliability with a coefficient
of .89 for the initial testing of aggression / .9 (or more) for the observations;
Pepperberg’s study had low reliability because the sessions took different
lengths of time;
Validity: is the extent to which a test or task measures what is claims to
measure; (definition)
i.e. whether it truly represents reality; (definition)
(Different types of validity e.g.) ecological validity which is whether results
generalise beyond the setting of the study;
Controls/standardisation make experiments more valid;
Milgram’s study had high validity because the participants believed they
were killing someone / showed genuine signs of tension;
Milgram’s study had low validity because the situation was in a laboratory
and it was unlikely that Yale would let people die for an experiment
Milgram’s study had low validity as electrocuting someone you cannot see is
very different from the situation German concentration camp guards were in
(and this is what Milgram was trying to test);
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 7 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-on-22-q07
Oct/Nov 2021 · Paper 22 · Question 7 · 9 marks
7 Zayn is conducting a laboratory experiment to investigate the effects
of lighting on attention. The participants’ attention will be tested using
a listening task in either bright light or dim light.
7(a) Identify the independent variable in Zayn’s study. 1
1 mark for identifying the IV of light (level)/bright lighting or dim lighting
© UCLES 2021 Page 7 of 13
7(b) Identify the dependent variable in Zayn’s study. 1
1 mark for identifying the DV of attention/score on the attention task
7(c)(i) State one relevant variable that Zayn should control in his study. 1
1 mark for a control
Amount of noise;
How much sleep the participant has had the night before;
Drinking alcohol/caffeine;
7(c)(ii) Suggest how Zayn could control the variable you suggested in (c)(i). 1
1 mark for how
Noise: use a sound-proof room;
Previous amount of sleep: ask them to sleep for a fixed time the day before;
Alcohol/caffeine: ask them to abstain the day before;
7(c)(iii) Explain why Zayn should control the variable you suggested in (c)(i). 1
1 mark for why
Noise: because noise could keep them awake;
Previous amount of sleep: because they would be more or less attentive;
Alcohol/caffeine: because they would be more/less attentive;
7(d) Explain one practical reason why it is better for Zayn to test attention 2
using a listening task rather than a visual task.
1 mark for generic reason (e.g. validity)
1 mark for link
The light level would affect how easy it was to see the visual task; (link)
So the difference in the results wouldn’t be due to the IV of task type;
(generic reason)
It would be harder to do the visual task in dim lighting; (link)
This would reduce validity; (generic reason)
You can close your eyes but you can’t close your ears; (link) (reason)
so it would be a more valid test; (generic reason)
© UCLES 2021 Page 8 of 13
7(e) Suggest one weakness of Zayn using a laboratory experiment to study 2
attention.
1 mark for a generic weakness
1 mark for a link (study on paying attention)
It lacks ecological validity; (generic)
People usually have a reason to pay attention e.g. in lessons / to a good film
(but wouldn’t in a laboratory);
They know they are being studied / there will be demand characteristics;
(generic)
So they will try harder to pay attention;
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 7, 8, 9 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-on-22-q08
Oct/Nov 2021 · Paper 22 · Question 8 · 7 marks
8 Gwyn is conducting a study about obedience to traffic rules. She
believes that hot weather makes people angry so they disobey rules.
Each day she has recorded the daily temperature and counted the
number of speeding offences in her town. Gwyn has categorised the
data in Table 8.1 according to temperature.
Temperature (°C) 19–20 21–22 23–24 25–26 27–28
Number of speeding 6 10 9 13 17
offences
8(a) Draw a histogram of Gwyn’s data. You must label the axes. 3
1 mark: ‘number of speeding offences’ on y-axis
1 mark: ‘temperature’ on x-axis
1 mark: correct plotting of data for full 3 marks
8(b) Outline what Gwyn can conclude from her data. 1
1 mark for a conclusion
Hotter weather makes people more angry;
People speed more when the weather is warmer;
© UCLES 2021 Page 9 of 13
8(c) A colleague says that several situational variables may be important in
Gwyn’s study and that she should have controlled them.
8(c)(i) Explain how one situational variable could have affected Gwyn’s 2
results.
1 mark for situational variable
1 mark for effect on results
There may be more/less traffic on the road when it is hot; (situational
variable)
which would make people speed more; (effect)
it may be harder to brake effectively in hotter weather; (situational variable)
making it harder for people to slow down; (effect)
8(c)(ii) Suggest how Gwyn could have reduced the effect of the situational 1
variable that you referred to in (c)(i).
1 mark for way to reduce effect
Traffic: count cars and only collect data on days of similar traffic density;
Braking: only collect data from cars with good brakes;
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 9, 10 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-on-22-q09
Oct/Nov 2021 · Paper 22 · Question 9 · 8 marks
9 Hazel is conducting an overt, participant observation to identify
factors that affect the emotions of residents in a home for elderly
people. She is a volunteer at the home, so the residents know her.
9(a) Explain one practical reason why it is useful that the residents know 2
Hazel.
1 mark for practical reason
1 mark for explanation
the participants are more likely to behave normally; (practical reason)
because Hazel is a volunteer so they are used to her being there; (detail)
because the residents know Hazel well / will feel comfortable with her;
(detail)
it will reduce the effects of social desirability; (practical reason – 2nd mark
only for term)
the residents might change their behaviour if the observer was unfamiliar
but they know Hazel; (detail)
so it will make the results more valid; (practical reason – 2nd mark only for
term)
© UCLES 2021 Page 10 of 13
9(b)(i) Explain one ethical problem caused by the residents knowing Hazel. 2
1 mark for ethical problem (e.g. privacy, harm, right to withdraw)
1 mark for link
There is a risk of invading privacy; (ethical problem)
residents might expose emotions because they know Hazel that they
wouldn’t want to reveal in a study; (link)
There is a risk of psychological harm; (ethical problem)
if Hazel observes emotions that the residents wouldn’t want to be seen, they
may become distressed; (link)
There is a reduced right to withdraw; (ethical problem)
residents might feel unable to walk away if they are expressing emotions
because Hazel knows them; (link)
9(b)(ii) Suggest two ways that Hazel could overcome the ethical problem that 4
you explained in (b)(i).
1 mark for a generic solution + 1 mark for link } ×2
privacy: make the right to withdraw clear; (generic)
e.g. put a sign up in the home saying residents can go to their rooms
whenever they like; (link)
psychological harm: debriefing; (generic)
e.g. if Hazel sees a resident becoming distressed she should reassure
them; (link)
right to withdraw: reminders that they can leave at any time; (generic)
e.g. each day Hazel arrives she should remind the residents they don’t have
to be watched; (link)
© UCLES 2021 Page 11 of 13
Official mark scheme pages: 10, 11 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-on-22-q10
Oct/Nov 2021 · Paper 22 · Question 10 · 14 marks
10 Jilpa plans to explore how personalities vary. She thinks that people’s
personalities can have several characteristics, for example, how
serious/playful, talkative/quiet or optimistic/pessimistic they are.
10(a) Describe how Jilpa could conduct a study using a structured interview 10
to investigate a range of characteristics in people’s personalities.
Three majors for a structured interview study are:
a: What – content of questions asked (detail: i.e. topics, examples:
serious/playful, talkative/quiet or optimistic/pessimistic or any other e.g.
shy/outgoing)
b: How – the interview is structured (detail: e.g. same questions to all /
same question order / predetermined / timing/interviewer’s dress, tone, face-
to-face)
c: How – style of questions asked (detail: e.g. open/closed; quantitative/
qualitative; filler questions
The minors are:
Where – location of participants when being interviewed
Who – participants
Other details for replication:
• lie questions
• sampling technique
• sample size
• how data will be gathered
• description of how closed questions will be scored
• description of how quantitative data from closed questions will analysed
• description of how open questions will be interpreted
Other appropriate responses should also be credited.
Mark according to the levels of response criteria below:
Level 3 (8–10 marks)
• Response is described in sufficient detail to be replicable.
• Response may have a minor omission.
• Use of psychological terminology is accurate and
comprehensive.
Level 2 (5–7 marks)
• Response is in some detail.
• Response has minor omission(s).
• Use of psychological terminology is accurate.
Level 1 (1–4 marks)
• Response is basic in detail.
• Response has major omission(s).
• If response is impossible to conduct max. 2.
• Use of psychological terminology is mainly accurate.
Level 0 (0 marks)
No response worthy of credit.
© UCLES 2021 Page 12 of 13
10(b) Identify one practical weakness/limitation with the procedure you have 4
described in your answer to part (a) and suggest how your study might
be done differently to overcome the problem.
Do not refer to ethics or sampling in your answer.
Answer will depend on problem identified.
Problems may, for example, be matters of:
Validity
• operationalisation
• situational/participant variables factors
Reliability
• inter-rater consistency
• intra-rater consistency.
This list is not exhaustive and other appropriate responses should also be
credited.
Marks Comment
3–4 Appropriate problem identified.
Appropriate solution is clearly described.
2 Appropriate problem identified.
plus
EITHER
Explanation of why it is a problem
OR
Ineffectual but possible solution described.
1 Appropriate problem identified.
Little or no justification.
0 No response worthy of credit
© UCLES 2021 Page 13 of 13
Official mark scheme pages: 12, 13 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-on-23-q01
Oct/Nov 2021 · Paper 23 · Question 1 · 4 marks
1(a) Outline what is meant by ‘fatigue effects’. 2
1 mark for definition
1 mark for detail
A decline in participants’ performance caused by experiencing an experimental
task/situation more than once; (definition)
It can result from tiredness/boredom; (detail)
The reduction in performance on the DV is not affected by the IV (reduces
validity); (detail)
1(b) In the study by Pepperberg (parrot learning), fatigue effects could have 2
occurred.
State two examples of the parrot’s behaviour that suggest fatigue effects
did occur.
1 mark per way
Stopped vocalising / refused to answer question;
Preened;
Became restless;
Requested a different item;
Asked to change location / go to gym / said ‘wanna go see…’;
© UCLES 2021 Page 4 of 14
Official mark scheme pages: 4 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-on-23-q02
Oct/Nov 2021 · Paper 23 · Question 2 · 1 marks
2 Explain why opportunity sampling may not produce a representative 1
sample.
1 mark for explanation
People taken by availability are likely to be similar;
When the experimenter chooses participants they may be biased;
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 5 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-on-23-q03
Oct/Nov 2021 · Paper 23 · Question 3 · 2 marks
3 Studies using animals should follow the ethical guideline of ‘deprivation 2
and aversive stimuli’. The study by Yamamoto et al. (chimpanzee helping)
followed this ethical guideline.
Explain one feature of this study that ensured the chimpanzees were not
exposed to deprivation/aversive stimuli.
1 mark for generic explanation of how to follow deprivation/aversive stimuli. (one
or other)
1 mark for link
deprivation refers to not making animals do without necessities; (generic)
aversive stimuli refers to not exposing animals to unpleasantness; (generic)
ethical approval from (Kyoto) university means the chimpanzees were cared for
(not deprived); (link)
the chimpanzees were given rewards not punished/deprived; (generic)
juice drink (reward); (link)
© UCLES 2021 Page 5 of 14
Official mark scheme pages: 5 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-on-23-q04
Oct/Nov 2021 · Paper 23 · Question 4 · 8 marks
4(a) In the study by Canli et al. (brain scans and emotions), several types of 4
quantitative data were collected, including data from fMRI (functional
Magnetic Resonance Imaging).
Describe two quantitative measures in this study, other than the data from
fMRI.
1 mark for identifying quantitative measure + 1 mark for detail × 2
Rating of emotional arousal/intensity;
On a scale of 0 = not / low to 3 = extremely emotionally intense / high;
Memory / recall / recognition of slides / scenes;
Number / percentage of slides remembered, familiar or forgotten;
4(b)(i) For one of the quantitative measures you described in (a): 2
Explain one reason why it may be a valid measure.
1 mark for reason, 1 mark for detail
Rating of emotional intensity:
It is a linear scale indicating greater intensity;
Whereas data about remembered, familiar or forgotten was nominal/categorical
so less informative;
Scale is standardised;
Each individual would be able to consistently say one stimulus was more (/less)
intense;
Number/percentage of slides remembered, familiar or forgotten:
Recalling a slide/scene is objective / not subjective;
Either it was forgotten/remembered/familiar or it wasn’t;
No interpretation is required like there is for the rating scale;
4(b)(ii) Explain one reason why it may not be a valid measure. 2
1 mark for reason, 1 mark for detail
P may lie;
Number/percentage of slides remembered, familiar or forgotten:
It does not allow for graded responses;
Something might be remembered/familiar somewhat or very well and this cannot
be recorded;
Rating of emotional intensity:
It is subjective / not objective;
So interpretation of the scale is required by the participant, so there may be
individual differences in use;
© UCLES 2021 Page 6 of 14
Official mark scheme pages: 6 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-on-23-q05
Oct/Nov 2021 · Paper 23 · Question 5 · 1 marks
5 In the cognitive approach, studies often need to deceive participants. 1
Explain why deception was necessary in the study by Andrade (doodling).
1 mark for need for deception
If the participants had known about the surprise memory test they would have
deliberately remembered the place names;
To avoid demand characteristics = 0
To avoid demand characteristics so the participants didn’t deliberately doodle /
make an effort to remember names / focus on the names in the message;
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 7 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-on-23-q06
Oct/Nov 2021 · Paper 23 · Question 6 · 6 marks
6 Describe covert observations and overt observations, using any examples. 6
Up to 4 marks for detail for each type of observation
max 2 examples per type of observation.
Examples can include examples from any studies (core studies, other studies,
candidate’s own studies).
Overt observation: the role of the observer is obvious to the participants; such
as if they are holding a clipboard;
This can improve validity as it is easier to collect data / to be close to the
participants;
It raises few ethical issues as participants are aware so can give consent;
Saavedra and Silverman: the boy knew the researchers were watching him
during the in vivo button tasks; (example)
Covert observation: the participants are unaware of role / existence of the
observer;
e.g. if disguised as a member of the social group; or physically hidden;
such as using CCTV / a one-way mirror;
This improves validity as participants cannot to be affected by being observed;
so demand characteristics / social desirability are reduced;
Bandura et al.’s observers were covert because they used a one-way mirror to
watch the children; (example)
Piliavin et al.’s observers were covert because they pretended to be
passengers to watch on the subway; (ex)
Schachter and Singer’s observers were covert because they used a one-way
mirror; (example)
Milgram: observations were covert because they were made through a one-way
mirror; (example)
Yamamoto et al.: chimpanzees videoed (using three cameras); (example)
© UCLES 2021 Page 7 of 14
Official mark scheme pages: 7 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-on-23-q07
Oct/Nov 2021 · Paper 23 · Question 7 · 9 marks
7(a) Dhia is investigating when children learn to understand differences 2
between shapes. She is comparing children aged 4 years and 8 years. Dhia
will test their ability by asking them to sort wooden shapes into triangles,
squares or circles.
Suggest two ways that Dhia could measure a child’s performance on this
test.
1 mark for a way × 2
How quickly they sort (all) the shapes;
How many shapes they sort correctly / How many errors they make in sorting;
Number of each type of shape: triangles, squares or circles;
7(b) Ethical guidelines suggest that even when consent has been given by a 2
parent, a child should still be asked if they want to participate in a way that
they will understand.
Suggest how Dhia could attempt to obtain consent from the children in a
way that they will understand.
1 mark for making informing and gaining agreement child-friendly
2nd mark for suggested technique e.g. wording or further detail
She should ask using easy words/language; (1st mark)
asking if they want to play a game; (1st or 2nd mark)
e.g. say ‘Please can you sort these shapes out for me’ (1st mark) ‘you don’t have
to if you don’t want to.’ (2nd mark)
e.g. say ‘Will you play a shape sorting game with me’; (1st mark) ‘or would you
rather play on your own?’ (2nd mark)
7(c) Children may express their right to withdraw in different ways from adults. 2
Suggest how Dhia might know that a child wants to withdraw from her
experiment.
1 mark for brief suggestion, 1 mark for detail or second suggestion
The child might get up / walk away from the study / walk out of the room; (brief
suggestion)
Stop participating / refuse to continue; (brief suggestion)
because they are afraid/bored (detail)
and child might look distressed/cry/scream/shout; (detail)
as they want to find someone familiar; (detail)
© UCLES 2021 Page 8 of 14
7(d) The 4-year-old children had been learning about shapes at school the week 3
before Dhia’s study.
Explain the possible effect of this on Dhia’s findings.
1 mark for identifying reduction in validity, 1 mark for detail, 1 mark for link
It will make her conclusion less valid; (identification)
Because the 4-year olds will have learned to tell the shapes apart; (link) ‘They
would be able to sort’ = 1
Because the DV would be affected by a variable other than the IV; (generic
detail)
Because the trip was only for the 4-year old children and not the 8-year old
children; (linked detail)
Learning about shapes could improve scores so they’d look better at shapes for
their age; (linked detail)
© UCLES 2021 Page 9 of 14
Official mark scheme pages: 8, 9 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-on-23-q08
Oct/Nov 2021 · Paper 23 · Question 8 · 9 marks
8(a) Bai is conducting a correlational study about pain and hours of daylight. 2
He thinks that people experience more pain on days when there is less
sunlight. He has asked for volunteers from a specialist centre for back
pain. Bai plans to collect his data about pain using a questionnaire.
Explain one reason why it may be better for him to use an interview to
collect this data.
1 mark for reason (generic)
1 mark for link
Some people might not return questionnaires, biasing the data; (reason)
People with worse back pain might find writing their answers more difficult than
talking; (link)
Interviews can tailor questions to individuals; (reason)
Interviews can explain questions to individuals; (reason)
Interviewer can build a relationship with the interviewee / develop trust; (reason)
So obtain more information about their pain / exposure to sunlight;
So Bai would be able to ask questions about the particular pain different patients
feel / what they do when the weather is fine/dull; (link)
Interviewer gains information from non-verbal cues / facial expressions / gestures
/ grimacing (to indicate pain);
Can use more open questions / collect more qualitative data = 0
8(b)(i) Suggest one disadvantage of using participants from a specialist centre for 2
back pain.
1 mark for disadvantage
1 mark for detail
The patients will all be in pain;
So the findings may not generalise / may not be representative;
to people with only mild pain / people from other areas;
The patients are attending a pain clinic, so are being treated;
The treatment may mean their pain doesn’t fluctuate enough to see a pattern;
They all have back pain;
The findings may not generalise (to other sorts of pain);
It might be unethical because it makes them think about their pain;
This could cause harm as they may be more distressed;
© UCLES 2021 Page 10 of 14
8(b)(ii) Suggest one alternative source of participants. Justify your answer. 2
1 mark for source of participants
1 mark for justification
The participants could include normal people who are experiencing occasional
pain;
Which would have greater generalisability to the whole population;
A group of patients who are awaiting appointments / treatment;
Then there are not receiving therapy / painkillers;
The participants could come from a hospital;
This would give a range of different sorts of pain;
Patients from a GP surgery;
A list could be used to get a more representative random sample;
8(c) Sketch a graph of the results Bai expects to find on the axes below. 3
You must label the axes.
1 mark for both ‘pain’ and ‘daylight’ as axis labels
1 mark for units (hours / brightness / light level) on daylight scale
1 mark for negative correlation (points or line of ‘best fit’)
© UCLES 2021 Page 11 of 14
Official mark scheme pages: 10, 11 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-on-23-q09
Oct/Nov 2021 · Paper 23 · Question 9 · 6 marks
9(a) Mitesh is investigating the effect of doodling on recall of animal noises. He 2
provides pencils and doodling paper for all participants and tells them that
they will hear a recording of animal noises that they will have to recall.
Mitesh notes which participants doodle while they listen to the recording.
Suggest how Mitesh could encourage participants to doodle, other than by
telling them to doodle.
1 mark for brief suggestion
1 mark for detail or second suggestion
He could provide paper with marked shapes; (suggestion)
Which he could tell them is to keep themselves amused (by doodling); (detail)
He could tell them the noises are boring; (suggestion)
So they might want to do something to keep themselves amused; (detail)
Make the recording long; (suggestion)
Make the recording repetitive; (suggestion)
So they get bored; (detail)
9(b) The participants who doodled recalled more animal noises than the 2
participants who did not doodle. However, Mitesh cannot conclude that
doodling causes better recall.
Suggest one reason why Mitesh cannot conclude that doodling causes
better recall.
1 mark for a brief/generic reason
2 marks for a clear and linked reason
Mitesh did not control who doodled; (brief)
So natural doodlers might have better memories anyway; (clear and linked)
Participants were not randomly allocated to conditions; (brief and generic)
People who doodle may have better auditory memory / memory for noises (than
non-doodlers); (clear and linked)
It might be improved concentration/attention (listening) that causes better recall;
(brief)
And doodling improves concentration/attention (listening); (clear and linked)
9(c) Mitesh did not deceive his participants. 2
Explain why it was necessary for him to debrief his participants.
1 mark for explanation (may be generic), 1 mark for link
Participants should always be returned to the condition in which they entered the
experiment; (explanation)
His participants may have felt discouraged if they didn’t recall many noises, he
needed to correct this; (link)
Participants not told the aim was to test the effect of doodling on recall; they
needed to be informed; = 2 (linked explanation)
© UCLES 2021 Page 12 of 14
Official mark scheme pages: 12 · source PDF URL
9990-2021-on-23-q10
Oct/Nov 2021 · Paper 23 · Question 10 · 14 marks
10(a) Mandy wants to investigate the effects of phobias on the way people 10
socialise, such as how friendly they are and the social groups or clubs they
belong to.
Describe how Mandy could conduct a study using a questionnaire to
investigate the effects of phobias on the way people socialise.
Three majors for a questionnaire are:
a content of questions (examples: phobic symptoms, social life)
b style of questions asked (e.g. open/closed)
c people with phobias (source, sampling)
The minor is:
where: location of participants when completing the questionnaire / how it is
distributed
Other details for replication:
• lie questions
• filler questions
• sample size
• description of how closed questions will be scored
• description of how open questions will be interpreted
• ethical issues
Other appropriate responses should also be credited.
Mark according to the levels of response criteria below:
Level 3 (8–10 marks)
• Response is described in sufficient detail to be replicable;
• Response may have a minor omission;
• Use of psychological terminology is accurate and comprehensive;
Level 2 (5–7 marks)
• Response is in some detail;
• Response has minor omission(s);
• Use of psychological terminology is accurate;
Level 1 (1–4 marks)
• Response is basic in detail;
• Response has major omission(s);
• If response is impossible to conduct max 2;
• Use of psychological terminology is mainly accurate;
Level 0 (0 marks)
No response worthy of credit.
© UCLES 2021 Page 13 of 14
10(b) Identify one practical weakness/limitation with the procedure you have 4
described in your answer to part (a) and suggest how your study might be
done differently to overcome the problem.
Do not refer to ethics or sampling in your answer.
Answer will depend on problem identified.
Problems may, for example, be matters of:
Validity
• operationalisation
• situational/participant variables factors
Reliability
• inter-rater consistency
• intra-rater consistency
This list is not exhaustive and other appropriate responses should also be
credited.
Marks Comment
3-4 Appropriate problem identified.
Appropriate solution is clearly described.
2 Appropriate problem identified.
plus
EITHER
Explanation of why it is a problem
OR
Ineffectual but possible solution described.
1 Appropriate problem identified.
Little or no justification.
0 No response worthy of credit
© UCLES 2021 Page 14 of 14
Official mark scheme pages: 13, 14 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-mj-21-q01
May/June 2022 · Paper 21 · Question 1 · 4 marks
1(a) From the study by Bandura et al. (aggression): 2
Describe how the quantitative data was collected in this study.
1 mark for observation
1 mark for how quantitative data was collected (frequency/number) linked to study
e.g., Observation of number of times a child copied the model = 2
e.g., ‘Observers scored the total number of aggressive and non-aggressive response categories’ = 2
Aggressive acts were counted = 1 mark (accept as frequency)
Aggression scored prior to testing on (four) five-point rating scales = 1
1(b) Suggest one advantage of using quantitative data in this study. 2
1 mark advantage
1 mark link
It can be analysed mathematically / statistically = 1 (advantage)
So they could calculate the percentage of children copying aggressive / non aggressive models = 1 (link)
They could compare mean aggression of boys and girls = 1 (link)
Number of times child hits bobo = 1 (link)
It is objective = 1 advantage
So objective statement of more/less / compare in relation to Bandura’s data = 2
© UCLES 2022 Page 5 of 20
Official mark scheme pages: 5 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-mj-21-q02
May/June 2022 · Paper 21 · Question 2 · 2 marks
2 A study has the experimental hypothesis ‘Older people will forget more often than younger people’. This is a 2
‘directional hypothesis’ rather than a ‘non-directional hypothesis’.
Explain what makes this a ‘directional hypothesis’.
1st mark for definition of directional and/or non-directional hypotheses
2nd mark for explaining that it says which age group will forget more (explanation in context)
Because it says which way the difference (but not direction) will go / that one group will forget more = 1 (definition)
Because it says older people will forget more = 1 (explanation in context)(ORA)
It would say one age group would forget more than the other if it were non-directional = 2 (explanation in context)
Because it states the direction of the difference = 0 (repetition of stem ‘direction’)
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 6 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-mj-21-q03
May/June 2022 · Paper 21 · Question 3 · 3 marks
3(a) A problem in experimental studies is the presence of uncontrolled variables. One uncontrolled variable in the 1
study by Andrade (doodling) was how likely each participant was to daydream.
Describe what is meant by an ‘uncontrolled variable’.
1 mark for meaning
(problem) variables that have not been / cannot be successfully eliminated = 1
variables that (lower validity because they) affect one level of the IV (more than the other) = 1
3(b) Explain why the uncontrolled variable of daydreaming was a problem in this study. 2
1 mark for why it was a problem (can be generic)
1 mark for link
Daydreaming could affect the DV making it hard to see the effect of the IV / could lower validity = 1 (generic)
Daydreaming affects concentration making it hard to see the effect of the IV = 2 (linked problem)
The DV could be affected so the IV of doodling would be hidden = 2 (linked problem)
Doodling may reduce daydreaming so increases attention rather than directly helping recall = 2 (problem link)
© UCLES 2022 Page 6 of 20
Official mark scheme pages: 6 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-mj-21-q04
May/June 2022 · Paper 21 · Question 4 · 4 marks
4(a)(i) A correlational study tested the idea that the amount of time spent using a phone is linked to quality of sleep. 1
State the relationship between the variables measured in this study, if a positive correlation was found.
1 mark for linked statement of relationship
When people spend more time using their phone they have better quality sleep = 1 (OWTTE)
When people spend less time using their phone they have worse quality sleep = 1 (OWTTE)
People who use their phone have poor/better sleep quality = 0 (describing a difference not a correlation)
4(a)(ii) State the relationship between the variables measured in this study, if a negative correlation was found. 1
1 mark for linked statement of relationship
People who more time using their phone they have poorer quality sleep = 1 (OWTTE)
People who spend less time using their phone they have better quality sleep = 1 (OWTTE)
As the number of hours spent on the phone goes up (down) the quality of sleep goes up (down) = 1 (OWTTE)
People who use their phone have poor/better sleep quality = 0 (describing a difference not a correlation)
There is no correlation between (more/less) phone use and (poor/good) sleep = 0 (null hypothesis)
© UCLES 2022 Page 7 of 20
4(b) Suggest one reason why it was more appropriate to conduct a correlational study rather than an experiment to 2
test this idea.
1 mark for reason (may be practical or ethical)
1 mark for linked detail
Because it may be unethical to manipulate one/both variables; (generic suggestion)
Telling people to use their phone more or less might annoy/upset them; (suggestion)
This would break the guideline of ‘protection from harm’; (linked detail)
It might worsen their sleep because they are annoyed at having been told (not phone use); (linked detail)
It would be less distressing if level of phone use and sleep quality were measured (and correlated); (linked detail)
Because it may be impractical to manipulate one/both variables; (generic suggestion)
For the study to work the aim would have to be hidden from them; (suggestion)
Otherwise they would expect to change their sleep, causing demand characteristics; (linked detail)
Which would be hard to do because people are very attached to their phones; (linked detail)
No need for deception / no difficulty if phone use and sleep quality were measured (and correlated); (linked detail)
Because the study is looking for a relationship (between two variables) not a causation; (generic suggestion)
© UCLES 2022 Page 8 of 20
Official mark scheme pages: 7, 8 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-mj-21-q05
May/June 2022 · Paper 21 · Question 5 · 3 marks
5(a) In the study by Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans), one way that data was collected was by listening to the 2
comments made by subway passengers. Differences were reported in relation to the type of victim the comments
referred to.
Describe one of these differences.
1st mark for identifying the difference
2nd mark for correct direction of difference
There was a difference in comments made in relation to black and white victims = 1
More comments were made when the victim was white than when they were black = 2
Accept: There was a difference in comments made in relation to ‘drunk’ and ‘cane’ victims = 1
Accept: More comments were made when the victim was ‘drunk’ than when they had a cane = 2
Accept: There was a difference in comments made in relation to white cane/drunk then black cane/drunk =1
Accept: More comments were made when the victim was white cane/drunk then black cane/drunk = 2
5(b) Suggest one problem the observers could have had when listening to the comments made by subway 1
passengers.
1 mark for problem
They might have been noticed (so stopped the people talking) = 1
Because they said nothing themselves they may have inhibited others / made others say more) = 1
By not recording the comments, they may have mis-remembered what was said = 1
By trying not to be noticed it might have been difficult to hear what was said properly = 1
Speaking in a different language = 1
© UCLES 2022 Page 9 of 20
Official mark scheme pages: 9 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-mj-21-q06
May/June 2022 · Paper 21 · Question 6 · 6 marks
6 Describe what is meant by a ‘semi-structured interview’ and an ‘unstructured interview’, using any examples. 6
1 mark for each point of detail
1 mark for each example that is linked to one type of interview (maximum of 2 marks in total).
Examples can include examples from studies using such questionnaire/interviews, or of ways they could be used.
Max 4 if only semi-structured or only unstructured interviews.
Max 4 if no examples
semi-structured:
interviews follow some set questions
the interviewer can add some questions in response to the participant’s responses;
e.g. Schachter and Singer interviewed participants and asked ‘How are you feeling?’;
unstructured:
interviews are much more flexible;
the interviewer can add questions in response to the participant’s responses;
tend to use more open questions / ask for descriptions / detail / produce more qualitative data;
e.g., Piliavin et al. the observers spoke to the person next to them on the train after the incident / the observers tried to
elicit comments from passengers sitting next to them on the train;
e.g., Dement and Kleitman sometimes went to the participants to ask them more questions about each dream;
© UCLES 2022 Page 10 of 20
Official mark scheme pages: 10 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-mj-21-q07
May/June 2022 · Paper 21 · Question 7 · 8 marks
7(a) Rhiain is investigating how much time babies spend in REM sleep. She thinks that bigger babies will spend more 1
time in REM sleep than smaller babies.
State the aim of Rhiain’s study.
1 mark for aim
To investigate how much time different size babies spend in dream sleep;
To test whether big babies spend more time in REM sleep than small babies; (ORA)
To investigate whether there is a correlation between baby weight/size and time in REM;
To investigate how much time babies spend in REM sleep = 0 [incomplete – no comparison]
7(b) One technique that Rhiain could use to measure REM sleep duration is an EEG (electroencephalograph).
7(b)(i) Suggest one disadvantage of using this technique in Rhiain’s study. 2
1 mark for suggestion (may be named guideline or linked idea, practical or ethical)
1 mark for link
Electrodes may not fit a baby’s head well; (suggestion: practical)
Babies’ heads are smaller than adults so the wires/electrodes may come unstuck more easily; (link)
Low ecological validity; (suggestion: practical)
Because lab is not a baby’s normal sleeping environment; (suggestion OR link)
Potential for harm; (suggestion: ethical)
the ponytail could be distressing; (suggestion OR link)
Electrodes uncomfortable for the baby; (suggestion OR link)
No right to withdraw; (suggestion: ethical)
If the baby found the electrodes / the ponytail uncomfortable it could only cry; (link)
© UCLES 2022 Page 11 of 20
7(b)(ii) Suggest why using one other technique to measure REM sleep duration would be more appropriate in this study. 3
2 marks for suggestion (suggestion detail)
1 mark for why it is better
Or
1 mark for suggestion
2 marks for why it is better (reason why detail)
By observing the baby’s eye movements (behind its eyelids) once it is asleep; (suggestion)
This would not cause distress / much need to withdraw / problems with recording; (why better)
So the data more valid reflecting real sleep patterns rather than disturbed/inaccurate ones; (why better)
Use CCTV to record the baby’s eye movements (behind its eyelids); (suggestion)
This would not cause distress / much need to withdraw / problems with recording; (why better)
So data more valid as reflecting real sleep patterns / could be rewatched to improve reliability; (why better)
It would be better to use a technique that did not involve attaching something to the baby’s head; (suggestion)
Because putting something on a baby’s head might affect sleep duration; (why better)
Small babies might be more affected by things stuck on their heads than big babies; (why better)
7(c) Rhiain also wants to know whether babies who are in REM sleep are having dreams but the babies cannot answer 2
questions about the content of their dreams.
Suggest how Rhiain could observe the babies during REM sleep to investigate the content of their dreams.
1 mark for suggestion
1 mark for detail
By recording/observing the direction (not just the duration) of their eye movements; (suggestion)
If their eyes move in different directions this would suggest they are tracking things in their dreams; (detail)
By recording any noises they make; (suggestion)
The noises may be linked to their dream content; (detail)
By recording any facial expressions they make; (suggestion)
The expressions, such as smiling, may be linked to their dream content; (detail)
© UCLES 2022 Page 12 of 20
Official mark scheme pages: 11, 12 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-mj-21-q08
May/June 2022 · Paper 21 · Question 8 · 11 marks
8(a) Kylo is planning a case study to investigate the importance of a pet / domesticated animal in the life of an elderly 4
person.
When choosing his sample of one elderly person he has several decisions to make.
Suggest who Kylo should look for as a participant, including:
the pet / domesticated animal they have and why the elderly person has this animal
one other decision he must make when choosing his participant.
Do not refer to sampling techniques in your answer.
Animal and why it is there: Accept any animal species.
2 marks for explanation of why the animal is there:
1 mark for suggestion
1 mark for detail
A cat because it is a pet; (suggestion)
It is there to keep the old person company / the purring is relaxing; (detail)
A cow because they want milk; (suggestion)
This is a source of food; (detail)
A dog because it is a pet / as a guard dog; (suggestion)
to get them out of the house / to keep them fit / to protect them; (detail)
Other decision about the participant (not pet related):
2 marks for explanation of a decision about the person / participant:
1 mark for suggestion
1 mark for detail
Accept any reasonable suggestion. Most likely:
How old they are / what counts as ‘elderly’; (suggestion)
Must be over 40 (years old); (detail)
Whether they are male or female; (suggestion)
The sexes may differ in their reasons for having a domestic animal; (detail)
Whether they live alone; (suggestion)
Like ‘family’; (detail)
© UCLES 2022 Page 13 of 20
8(b)(i) Suggest one technique Kylo could use to collect data from his participant in his case study. 3
1 mark for suggestion
1 mark for link
1 mark for detail (of suggestion OR link)
Observation; (suggestion)
Use a structured observation of the participant and his pet with behavioural categories; (link)
Such as whether he pats it / milks it / talks to it; (detail/link)
(covert) Observation; (suggestion)
where the observer is hidden; (detail)
E.g. by watching the participant and their animal through a window; (link)
Use a non-participant observation; (suggestion)
of the participant and his pet so Kylo doesn’t touch with the pet; (link)
because this might disrupt the participant’s interactions with the pet; (detail)
Interview; (suggestion)
Use an unstructured interview of the participant and his pet with varied questions; (detail)
Such as ‘Describe how important your animal is to you’; (link)
Questionnaire; (suggestion)
Type of question; (detail)
About the animal and person; (link)
© UCLES 2022 Page 14 of 20
8(b)(ii) Explain one advantage of the technique you suggested in (b)(i). 2
1 mark for suggested advantage
1 mark for detail (likely to be linked, but not required)
Observation:
Access information about the relationship the participant might not know / be able to express; (advantage)
Such as changes in expression on the participant’s face; (detail)
Covert observation:
Being unseen means you get more natural behaviour; (advantage)
For example, the participant might be embarrassed by their behaviour and stop if they can see you; (detail)
Non-participant:
Not being part of the pair means you won’t distract the owner / the animal; (advantage)
For example, you might disturb the animal you are near them; (detail)
Questionnaire/Interview:
You would be able to ask for the reasons behind their interactions with the animal; (advantage)
Such as why they pat them; (detail)
© UCLES 2022 Page 15 of 20
8(b)(iii) Explain one disadvantage of the technique you suggested in (b)(i). 2
1 mark for suggested disadvantage
1 mark for detail (link)
Observation:
Can only access information about the relationship which can be seen; (disadvantage)
So the underlying reasons for patting the animal / talking to it cannot be investigated; (detail)
Covert / Non-participant observation:
Being unseen / away from the participants may mean you cannot see/hear clearly; (disadvantage)
So you may miss important features of the interaction with the animal such as eye contact; (detail)
Questionnaire/Interview:
The participant may give socially desirable answers about their interactions with the animal; (disadvantage)
Such as lying because they are embarrassed about how often they talk to the animal; (detail)
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 13, 14, 15, 16 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-mj-21-q09
May/June 2022 · Paper 21 · Question 9 · 5 marks
9(a) Rory is investigating factors that affect feeding behaviour in animals. 1
Rory has chosen to observe the feeding behaviour of some fish.
Suggest one problem Rory could have when observing these fish.
1 mark for linked suggestion
The fish might be stressed by human presence / Rory / Seeing movement / hearing noises = 1
The fish might change their behaviour because of human presence / Rory / movement / noises = 1
They might swim behind things / very quickly / around each other making it hard for Rory to see them = 1
© UCLES 2022 Page 16 of 20
9(b) Rory will keep these fish in a container filled with water. 2
Suggest one other feature related to ‘housing’ that Rory should consider.
Do not refer to feeding in your answer.
1 mark for suggestion
1 mark for detail
Amount of space/water / tank big enough; (suggestion)
to avoid causing them pain or distress; (detail)
Somewhere to hide / rocks/plants; (suggestion)
Because they could be distressed if there was nowhere to escape to; (detail)
Water depth / freshness/temperature/salinity/depth/freshness/oxygenation; (suggestion)
Because different fish species have different needs / as this avoids causing them pain or distress; (detail)
9(c) Explain why using fish will limit the generalisability of Rory’s findings. 2
1 mark for explanation
1 mark for detail
Because fish differ from other (animal) species / humans in intelligence/feelings/learning/habitat; (explanation)
So the findings wouldn’t generalise to other species that are more intelligent / that don’t live in water; (detail)
© UCLES 2022 Page 17 of 20
Official mark scheme pages: 16, 17 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-mj-21-q10
May/June 2022 · Paper 21 · Question 10 · 14 marks
10(a) Gareth wants to investigate whether people are more friendly to one another after a positive public event, for 10
example, a festival or a celebrity wedding.
Design a natural experiment to test whether a positive public event makes people more friendly to one another.
You may use any positive public event.
Three majors for a natural experiment are:
(a) IV: before and after big positive public event (must not be manipulated) (detail = e.g., how long before/after)
(b) DV: friendliness e.g., by observation, questionnaire, interview (detail = ‘friendly’ measures: e.g., of Qs, behavioural
categories)
(c) Where: the event and its location, so where the data is collected (detail e.g., location of observers/interviewers)
The minors are:
controls
who: participants attending positive event / not attending or before/after positive event
Also:
sampling technique
sample size
description of how data will analysed, e.g. use of averages/bar chart
ethical issues
Other appropriate responses should also be credited.
© UCLES 2022 Page 18 of 20
10(a) Mark according to the levels of response criteria below:
Level 3 (8–10 marks)
Response is described in sufficient detail to be replicable (i.e., what and how).
Response may have a minor omission (i.e., who or where).
Use of psychological terminology is accurate and comprehensive.
Level 2 (5–7 marks)
Response is in some detail.
Response has minor omission(s) (i.e., who and/or where).
Use of psychological terminology is accurate.
Level 1 (1–4 marks)
Response is basic in detail.
Response has major omission(s).
If response is impossible to conduct max. 2.
Use of psychological terminology is mainly accurate.
Level 0 (0 marks)
No response worthy of credit.
© UCLES 2022 Page 19 of 20
10(b) Identify one practical weakness/limitation with the procedure you have described in your answer to part (a) and 4
suggest how your study might be done differently to overcome the problem.
Do not refer to ethics or sampling in your answer.
Answer will depend on problem identified. If the problem was an obvious omission in (a), fewer marks will have been
awarded in (a), so they can be awarded here.
Problems may, for example, be matters of:
Validity
operationalisation
difficulty with lying / social desirability
difficulty with response biases
Reliability
inter-rater consistency
intra-rater consistency.
This list is not exhaustive and other appropriate responses should also be credited.
Marks Comment
3–4 Appropriate problem identified.
Appropriate solution is clearly described.
2 Appropriate problem identified.
plus
EITHER Explanation of why it is a problem
OR Ineffectual but possible solution described.
1 Appropriate problem identified.
Little or no justification.
0 No response worthy of credit
© UCLES 2022 Page 20 of 20
Official mark scheme pages: 18, 19, 20 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-mj-22-q01
May/June 2022 · Paper 22 · Question 1 · 1 marks
1 State what is meant by ‘reliability’. 1
1 mark for simple explanation
Consistency of a procedure/task/measure/study/research = 1
Getting the same results when the procedure is the same = 1
To be reliable, measures must measure the phenomenon in the same way each time = 1 mark
Consistency of results/findings = 0
Reliability is about consistency = 0
Replication = 0 [e.g. ‘Extent to which a study can be replicated’ = 0]
BUT ‘Extent to which a study can be replicated and produces the same results’ = 1
Getting the same results in different situations = 0
Question Answers Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 5 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-mj-22-q02
May/June 2022 · Paper 22 · Question 2 · 2 marks
2 Explain the difference between ‘qualitative data’ and ‘quantitative data’. 2
2 marks for difference, most likely to be through two separate definitions
Quantitative data is numerical / produces a count/totals in categories = 1
Qualitative data is descriptive/detailed / in depth = 1
Quantitative is objective / qualitative is subjective = 0
© UCLES 2022 Page 5 of 18
Official mark scheme pages: 5 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-mj-22-q03
May/June 2022 · Paper 22 · Question 3 · 6 marks
3(a) Schachter and Singer (two factors in emotion) was a laboratory experiment. 2
The participants in this study were all male. A new experiment could explore gender differences in the effect of
epinephrine. However, the stooge may influence emotions differently in males and females.
Suggest how a difference between the influence of the stooge on males and females could affect the results about
gender differences in the effect of epinephrine.
1 mark for suggestion
1 mark for effect on results
The angry stooge might make females more/less angry (than it made males); (suggestion)
So females would appear to be more/less affected by epinephrine; (effect on results)
The happy stooge might make females more/less happy (than it made males); (suggestion)
So females would appear to be more/less affected by epinephrine; (effect on results)
Note: If the response only talks about the gender of the stooge = 0 [NAQ]
Note: If response restating aim = 0 e.g., ‘males and females react to / interact with the (male) stooge differently = 0
© UCLES 2022 Page 6 of 18
3(b)(i) A second new experiment could include a stooge who claims to feel ill because of the injection.
Suggest how one participant variable could affect the results of this second new experiment.
1 mark for suggestion of participant variable (e.g., personality, feeling ill already)
1 mark for effect on results (e.g., more or less ill, NOT whether they helped or not)
Some participants might feel ill anyway; (suggestion)
The stooge would have a bigger effect / the cognitive factor would look greater; (effect on results)
Participants might feel ill and withdraw; (suggestion)
This would make the results less valid (as the sample size would be smaller); (effect on results)
Anxiety level; (suggestion)
More anxious participants might be more affected by the stooge / would feel more ill; (effect on results)
Note: A participant variable that could also have affected the original Schachter and Singer study is acceptable.
3(b)(ii) Explain one ethical problem with this second new experiment. 2
1 mark for ethical problem (can be generic)
1 mark for link
Feeling ill is distressing; (link)
So little protection from harm; (ethical problem)
They will believe the ill stooge is sick; (link)
So they were deceived; (ethical problem)
Question Answers Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 6, 7 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-mj-22-q04
May/June 2022 · Paper 22 · Question 4 · 6 marks
4 In the study by Baron-Cohen et al. (eyes test), eight problems of validity were identified with the original version of
the eyes test. Two of these problems were that:
the task involved a forced choice between only two response options (the two words presented)
the test included basic mental states.
© UCLES 2022 Page 7 of 18
4(a) Explain why each of these problems affected the validity of this study. 4
The task involved a forced choice between only two response options.
The test included basic mental states.
1 mark for identifying validity problem} ×2
1 mark for explanation }
Forced choice:
can be correct by chance / can guess / narrow score range so poor discrimination / ceiling effect; (validity problem)
only two choices of words, so likely to be correct on half of the trials; (explanation)
basic mental states:
questions very easy narrow score range / poor discrimination / ceiling effect / all participants get high scores; (validity
problem)
the basic mental states were too easy to answer; (explanation);
4(b) Explain how solving one of these problems improved the validity of the eyes test. 2
1 mark for identifying improvement
1 mark for how it improves validity
Both marks must be about the same problem (i.e., only forced choice or basic and complex mental states)
Forced choice:
Make more/4 choices; (improvement)
So reason is they can’t guess (so range reflects actual ability at detecting states); (how it improves validity)
basic and complex mental states:
Only use complex mental states; (improvement)
Test detects greater range of abilities to detect mental states; (how it improves validity)
© UCLES 2022 Page 8 of 18
Official mark scheme pages: 7, 8 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-mj-22-q05
May/June 2022 · Paper 22 · Question 5 · 1 marks
5 In the study by Milgram (obedience), the sample included a wide range of occupations. 1
Name two of these occupations.
1 mark for identifying two groups from this DEFINITIVE list:
students, postal clerks, high school teachers, salesmen, engineers, and laborers
© UCLES 2022 Page 9 of 18
Official mark scheme pages: 9 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-mj-22-q06
May/June 2022 · Paper 22 · Question 6 · 6 marks
6 Describe the use of ‘open questions’ and ‘closed questions’ in research, using any examples. 6
1 mark for each definition, up to a maximum of 2, for each question type.
1 mark for each linked example, from any studies (core, other, candidate’s own). Max 2 for each question type.
Max 4 if only open or only closed questions.
Max 4 if no examples.
Open questions:
Allow participants to answer freely / give answers in their own words / provide detail / can elaborate;
produce qualitative data;
(more) subjective.
Examples may include Describe…, Explain how, why…, X, why? …
To earn credit, examples of questions must not be closed questions with no options.
Andrade: Half the participants were then asked to recall the names of party-goers and, when they had done that, of the
places mentioned.
Dement and Kleitman: (if they could recall a dream) they had been asked to relate their dream content;
Dement and Kleitman: When the participant finished speaking some were asked about a particular point of the dream;
Laney: experiences with asparagus as a child
Closed questions:
Participants answer from fixed options / only chose the answer / alternative answers are provided;
produce quantitative data;
(more) objective;
Dement and Kleitman: Participants were first instructed to state whether or not they had been dreaming;
Canli et al.: Subjects chose from four buttons to indicate emotional arousal on a scale from 0 (“not emotionally intense at
all”) to 3 (“extremely emotionally intense”)
Canli et al.: In the unexpected recognition test participants were asked whether they had seen each picture before;
Laney: rating scales on RQ and FHI;
Canli et al.: For scenes judged as previously seen, subjects reported whether they remembered with certainty
(“remember”) or had a less certain feeling of familiarity (“know”).
Baron-Cohen et al.: IQ test
Baron-Cohen et al.: AQ
Baron-Cohen et al.: Eyes test
© UCLES 2022 Page 10 of 18
Official mark scheme pages: 10 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-mj-22-q07
May/June 2022 · Paper 22 · Question 7 · 8 marks
7 Geoffrey is conducting structured interviews about people’s use of social media. He is investigating how much
time people spend on social media and how positive they feel about it.
7(a) Geoffrey finds that the time people spend on social media is normally distributed. 3
Sketch the shape of this normal distribution using the axes below.
You must label the axes.
1 mark for symmetrical normal distribution shape
1 mark for ‘time spent on social media’ on x-axis
1 mark for ‘frequency’ / ‘The number of people (who spend different amounts of time on social media)’;
‘The number of people who feel positive people feel about social media’ = 0 [irrl]
7(b) Geoffrey finds that some participants give interesting responses, but he does not explore
their use of social media further.
7(b)(i) Explain one practical reason why using a structured interview means that Geoffrey cannot explore these 2
participants’ use of social media further.
1 mark for explanation
1 mark for linked detail
Cannot add extra questions / has to stick to standard questions; (explanation)
Which may not cover the interesting issue raised; (link)
Geoffrey couldn’t ask more about social media than was in his original questions; (link)
© UCLES 2022 Page 11 of 18
7(b)(ii) Explain one ethical reason why Geoffrey may choose not to explore these participants’ use of social media 3
further.
1 mark for ethical explanation
1 mark for detail
1 mark for link
Protection from harm; (explanation)
might feel uncomfortable answering questions; (detail)
privacy; (explanation)
may not want to answer questions about personal lives; (detail)
people might be using social media for reasons they don’t want to explain; (link/detail)
they may be embarrassed / they may be telling lies on social media/the posts may be illegal; (link/detail)
Question Answers Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 11, 12 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-mj-22-q08
May/June 2022 · Paper 22 · Question 8 · 8 marks
8 Faolan is investigating teachers’ attitudes and behaviours towards students doodling. She has conducted a semi-
structured interview and has observed the teachers in the classroom.
8(a)(i) Faolan asks each teacher to rate how annoyed they feel when a student in their class doodles. 1
Suggest a scale that Faolan could use to measure how annoyed the teachers are.
1 mark for any numerical or word scale.
1 = not at all annoyed, 10 = very annoyed;
© UCLES 2022 Page 12 of 18
8(a)(ii) Explain one problem with the scale that you have suggested in (a)(i), including how this would affect the results. 2
1 mark for explaining problem (identifying validity/reliability etc. is not enough, not ‘explaining’)
1 mark for link to results
There is not exact mid-point to the scale (5 and 6 are in the middle); (problem)
So if they wouldn’t feel cross or not cross, they wouldn’t be able to answer; (link to results)
People may interpret the scale in different ways; (problem)
For example, ‘6’ might be quite cross for one teacher and hardly cross at all for another; (link to results)
8(b) Faolan is interested to know whether teachers show the same behaviours in the classroom when students doodle
as they reported during the interview.
8(b)(i) Suggest two reasons why the teachers’ interview responses may differ from their behaviour in the classroom. 4
Your answers should not relate to the scale you suggested in (a)(i).
1 mark for suggestion ×2
1 mark for detail
The teachers may not be aware of how cross they get; (suggestion)
So might under/over-estimate their feelings (in the interview compared to in the classroom); (detail)
The teachers may not want to admit to Faolan how cross they get / may lie; (suggestion)
So might under-estimate their feelings (in the interview); (detail)
The teachers may be feeling very cross the day they are interviewed/observed; (suggestion)
So might be much more/less cross than normal; (detail)
© UCLES 2022 Page 13 of 18
8(b)(ii) If Faolan finds that teachers do not show the same behaviours in the classroom as they report during the 1
interview, this raises an ethical issue.
Suggest why it could be difficult for Faolan to follow the ethical guideline of ‘protection from harm’ when she
explains her results to the participants.
1 mark for suggestion
The teachers will be upset/cross because they are harsher/kinder than they thought they were;
The teachers may feel they have been tricked;
The teachers may be worried as they appear to have lied;
Question Answers Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 12, 13, 14 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-mj-22-q09
May/June 2022 · Paper 22 · Question 9 · 8 marks
9 Tulip is conducting a study on social behaviour in animals. She is investigating whether animals are more
sociable when they are in a large laboratory cage or a small laboratory cage.
9(a) Tulip has to decide which species to use. 2
Explain how one ethical guideline relating to animals would affect her decision.
1 mark for identifying a relevant guideline
1 mark for explanation
No mark for which species chosen
(Some animals/chimps are more likely to experience) distress; (guideline)
E.g., if they are more intelligent (than rats); (explanation)
Species (and strain) (says she needs a suitable type of animal/rats / small animals); (guideline)
Because they are less likely to suffer distress (in a small cage); (explanation)
Housing (must be suitable for the animal chosen); (guideline)
So the small cages mustn’t be too small for them; (explanation)
© UCLES 2022 Page 14 of 18
9(b) Tulip is finding a median. She puts her scores in order. 1
State what a researcher should do to find the median if there are two middle numbers.
1 mark for explaining that when there are two middle scores they must be added together and divided by 2.
Add them up and halve the total;
Sum the two together and divide by 2;
9(c) Explain how Tulip would find the range of the number of sociable behaviours of the animals in the small cage. 2
1 mark for explanation of how to find out the range
1 mark for link
Find the largest number of sociable behaviours and the smallest number of sociable behaviours (from the small cage data)
(and take one from the other) (and add one) = 2 (linked)
Take the smallest number from the biggest number (and add one) = 1 (generic)
Find the difference between the greatest and least number of social behaviours (per animal) = 2 (linked)
9(d) Explain why it would be appropriate for Tulip to use counterbalancing if she chose a repeated measures 3
experimental design.
1 mark for identification of ‘order effects’ (by name or description)
1 mark for the nature of that effect on the animals
1 mark for linked consequence for the study/results
There must be a link to this study for full 3 marks
Order effects; (identification)
Animals might be more tired (with repeated measures); (generic nature of effect)
more tired animals might show less sociable behaviours / be more aggressive; (linked consequence)
Animals might be more/less sociable the second time; (linked nature of effect)
so if they were less sociable the second time because they had been in the smaller cages first, they would look less
sociable in the big cages but this would not be a valid result; (linked consequence)
you wouldn’t be able to tell whether this was the effect of the IV or not; (unlinked consequence)
© UCLES 2022 Page 15 of 18
Official mark scheme pages: 14, 15 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-mj-22-q10
May/June 2022 · Paper 22 · Question 10 · 14 marks
10(a) Enfys wants to investigate whether different types of shopper are more relaxed than others. For example, whether
shoppers with trolleys/carts are more relaxed than shoppers with baskets.
Describe how Enfys could conduct a natural experiment to investigate whether some types of shopper are more
relaxed than other types of shoppers. You may choose to compare shoppers with trolleys/carts and baskets, or
any other different types of shopper.
Three majors for a natural experiment are:
(a) IV: e.g., trolley/basket (How recorded e.g., by observing what the shopper chose or by asking which they used in a
questionnaire)
(b) DV: e.g., relaxed (happy/tense/aggressive) (detail: behavioural categories, event/time sampling, questions)
(c) Where: shop / type of shop (location of observer, e.g., hidden at till, disguised as a shopper / questionnaire given as
participant leaves the shop)
The minors are:
who: shoppers (e.g., only adults?)
controls
Other details for replication:
sampling technique
sample size
ethical issues
description of how data will analysed, e.g. use of averages/bar charts
Other appropriate responses should also be credited.
© UCLES 2022 Page 16 of 18
9990/22 Cambridge International AS & A Level – Mark Scheme May/June 2022
PUBLISHED
Question Answer Marks
10a) Mark according to the levels of response criteria below:
Level 3 (8–10 marks)
Response is described in sufficient detail to be replicable (i.e., what and how).
Response may have a minor omission (i.e., who or where).
Use of psychological terminology is accurate and comprehensive.
Level 2 (5–7 marks)
Response is in some detail.
Response has minor omission(s) (i.e., who and/or where).
Use of psychological terminology is accurate.
Level 1 (1–4 marks)
Response is basic in detail.
Response has major omission(s).
If response is impossible to conduct max. 2.
Use of psychological terminology is mainly accurate.
Level 0 (0 marks)
No response worthy of credit.
© UCLES 2022 Page 17 of 18
10(b) Identify one practical weakness/limitation with the procedure you have described in your answer to part (a) and 4
suggest how your study might be done differently to overcome the problem.
Do not refer to ethics or sampling in your answer.
Answer will depend on problem identified. If the problem was an obvious omission in (a), fewer marks will have been
awarded in (a), so they can be awarded here.
Problems may, for example, be matters of:
Validity
• operationalisation
• difficulty with lying / social desirability
• difficulty with response biases
Reliability
• inter-rater consistency
• intra-rater consistency.
This list is not exhaustive and other appropriate responses should also be credited.
Marks Comment
3-4 Appropriate problem identified.
Appropriate solution is clearly described.
2 Appropriate problem identified.
plus
EITHER Explanation of why it is a problem
OR Ineffectual but possible solution described.
1 Appropriate problem identified.
Little or no justification.
0 No response worthy of credit
© UCLES 2022 Page 18 of 18
Official mark scheme pages: 16, 17, 18 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-mj-23-q01
May/June 2022 · Paper 23 · Question 1 · 4 marks
1 In the study by Andrade (doodling), parts of the procedure helped to reduce demand characteristics. 4
Describe two parts of the procedure that helped to reduce demand characteristics in this study.
1 mark for part of procedure } ×2
1 mark for reduction of demand characteristics }
Independent measures (to reduce exposure) / participants only saw one condition; (part of procedure)
So participants only saw either doodling or non-doodling conditions; (reduction of demand characteristics)
Deception (so unaware therefore reduction of demand characteristics);
They were told to remember the names (but they had to recall the places too); (part of procedure)
They were told it was a study about memory not doodling; (part of procedure)
They were told it didn’t matter how many shapes they shaded; (part of procedure)
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 5 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-mj-23-q02
May/June 2022 · Paper 23 · Question 2 · 2 marks
2(a) State the difference between an ‘aim’ and a ‘hypothesis’. 1
1 mark for difference
A hypothesis is testable, an aim is not (necessarily)
2(b) A non-directional hypothesis for a study states that ‘Boys and girls differ in how aggressive they are’ but the 1
researcher has decided to use a directional hypothesis instead.
Suggest a directional hypothesis for this study.
1 mark for directional hypothesis.
Boys will be more aggressive than girls = 1 (ORA)
Boys are more aggressive than girls = 1 (ORA)
© UCLES 2022 Page 5 of 18
Official mark scheme pages: 5 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-mj-23-q03
May/June 2022 · Paper 23 · Question 3 · 2 marks
3 The study by Milgram (obedience) was not an experiment because there was no independent variable. Milgram
later compared the results of this study to the findings of the same procedure carried out in an old office block.
This comparison was an experiment.
3(a) State the independent variable in this experiment. 1
1 mark for IV : Location / lab versus office;
3(b) State the dependent variable in this experiment. 1
1 mark for DV: Shock level / voltage reached / level of obedience / whether they exceeded X volts;
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 6 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-mj-23-q04
May/June 2022 · Paper 23 · Question 4 · 5 marks
4(a) Explain what is meant by the ethical guideline of ‘species and strain’ in relation to animals in psychological 2
research.
1 mark for each relevant point of explanation
Use a species/strain that will be least distressed; (note: ‘protection from harm’ = 0 (human guideline), unless means ‘pain’)
Use a species that will feel less pain;
Use a species that will serve the purpose of the experiment (so this is a compromise);
Least number of species = 0 Housing/food/water = 0
© UCLES 2022 Page 6 of 18
4(b) Describe how the ethical guideline of ‘housing’ affects what psychologists should and should not do when 3
studying animals
3 marks for what psychologist should/should not do (this will encompass any definition of the guideline)
Should house to provide essential needs for species/age/sex/ reproductive stage / activity level;
E.g. warmth/cover;
sufficient space for exercise/‘roaming’;
sufficient space to avoid overcrowding / individual housing for solitary species;
small enough nest sites to feel safe;
to provide (suitable) food/water;
clean infrequently (change of smell could be upsetting);
locate animals away from where they could become distressed (e.g. near natural predators);
create a safe and healthy environment rather than trying to recreate the wild environment beyond what is necessary;
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 6, 7 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-mj-23-q05
May/June 2022 · Paper 23 · Question 5 · 3 marks
5 In the study by Schachter and Singer (two factors in emotion), the placebo condition was a control condition.
5(a) Outline what is meant by a ‘control condition’. 1
Meaning = 1 mark [must not be only an e.g. from Schachter and Singer e.g. saline / no epi, but ignore link if otherwise
correct]
Participants in a group in an experiment where the independent variable is missing / a placebo group = 1
Participants that provide a baseline for comparison to an experimental group = 1
© UCLES 2022 Page 7 of 18
5(b) Explain the purpose of this control condition in this study. 2
Identification of control condition = 1 mark } must have a link for 2 marks
Purpose of control condition = 1 mark }
No adrenalin/epinephrine / (only) saline = 1 (identification)
Baseline/comparison = 1 (purpose)
Shows how the participants would behave towards the stooge without adrenalin = 1 (purpose)
E.g. “Shows how participants would behave towards the stooge without adrenalin compared to with = 2 (identification +
purpose)
© UCLES 2022 Page 8 of 18
Official mark scheme pages: 7, 8 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-mj-23-q06
May/June 2022 · Paper 23 · Question 6 · 6 marks
6 Describe ‘random sampling’ and ‘volunteer sampling’, using any examples. 6
1 mark for each definition, up to a maximum of 2, for each technique.
1 mark for each linked example, from any studies (core, other, candidate’s own). Max 2 for each sampling technique.
Max 4 if no examples.
Max 4 if only random or only volunteer sampling.
For example:
Random sampling:
Each individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected;
getting a numbered list of people and putting the numbers in a hat / using a random number generator to select the sample
by choosing out of a hat/the ones generated;
a study might use the list of all students in a school and select 30 from them;
Volunteer sampling:
Using a request asking people to join in;
by advert/email/post/online;
Baron-Cohen et al. took volunteers from Autistic Society magazine / support group;
Schachter and Singer used volunteers from the psychology course / University of Minnesota;
Laney et al. used volunteers from a participant pool (at University of Washington);
Milgram volunteers responding to advert;
Canli 10 Right handed women were volunteers;
© UCLES 2022 Page 9 of 18
Official mark scheme pages: 9 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-mj-23-q07
May/June 2022 · Paper 23 · Question 7 · 8 marks
7 Mrs Colling is a headteacher/principal of a school and is planning an experiment to investigate whether rewards or
punishments are best for improving students’ learning. The independent variable is whether students receive
rewards or punishments.
7(a)(i) Suggest two ways that Mrs Colling could ask teachers to reward students in their classes. 2
1 mark per suggested way to reward ×2
Give food;
Give gift vouchers;
Giving merit marks;
Giving praise;
Writing positive comments on their work;
Telling the class to clap;
These are only suggestions, there will be many possible answers
7(a)(ii) Explain which of the ways you suggested in (a)(i) would be a more valid manipulation of the independent variable 2
in this experiment.
1 mark for why chosen way is more valid [note: no mark for just stating the better way]
1 mark for detail
OR
2 marks for two brief ways
Giving merit marks:
is better than praise as praise is variable (can be subtle or fulsome); (why better)
but the effect of each merit mark would be equivalent; (detail)
Writing positive comments on their work:
is better than telling the class to clap, because this might be embarrassing; (why better)
so it would act as punishment (instead of a reward); (detail)
© UCLES 2022 Page 10 of 18
7(b) Mrs Colling is talking to teachers about what punishment to use. Two suggested punishments are:
• missing breaktime every day for a week while standing outside the staffroom
• making the student write a public letter of apology to the school.
Both suggested punishments are rejected by the teachers for ethical and practical reasons.
7(b)(i) Suggest one ethical problem with one of these punishments. 2
1 mark for identification of an ethical problem
1 mark for detail
Missing breaktime could do psychological harm; (identification)
For example, the student could get lonely; (detail)
The students wouldn’t have the right to withdraw from the study; (identification)
Because they would have to miss their breaktimes; (detail)
The public apology letter would break confidentiality; (identification)
Because everyone would know which student had been punished; (detail)
The public apology letter would break privacy; (identification)
Because the student’s misdemeanour might have been embarrassing; (detail)
A public apology letter could do psychological harm; (identification)
For example, the student could get upset; (detail)
A public apology letter could do physical harm; (identification)
For example, the student could lose sleep with worry; (detail)
7(b)(ii) Suggest one practical problem with one of these punishments. 2
1 mark for identification of a practical problem
1 mark for detail
Missing breaktime make them late for lessons; (identification)
Then they would get more punishments; (detail)
A public apology letter could be written by someone else (not the student); (identification)
So they would have avoided receiving any punishment; (detail)
© UCLES 2022 Page 11 of 18
Official mark scheme pages: 10, 11 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-mj-23-q08
May/June 2022 · Paper 23 · Question 8 · 8 marks
8 Ruby has conducted an experiment about language learning in animals using an animal called Delphine. Delphine
has learned to make noises with different meanings. Ruby has tested Delphine’s understanding of word types,
including:
• shapes
• colours
• food types
Table 8.1.
Word type shapes colours foods
Number of words understood 5 8 15
8(a) Ruby’s results for the three word types are given in Table 8.1.
8(a)(i) Draw a bar chart of these results. You must label the axes. 4
Max 3 marks if not a bar chart (with separate bars)
1 mark: axis label ‘number of correct words’ on y-axis
1 mark: units (for frequency) on y-axis
1 mark: axis label ‘word type’ on x-axis
1 mark: shapes, colours, foods as categories on x-axis
1 mark: correct plotting of numbers as above
© UCLES 2022 Page 12 of 18
tcerroc
sdrow
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rebmuN
8(a)(ii) State which measure of central tendency would be most appropriate for Ruby to use with this data. 1
1 mark for mode (definitive)
8(b) Ruby plans to include two more word categories. 1
Explain why this would improve Ruby’s results.
1 mark for explanation
Because it would show that the learning applies to a range of categories (so more valid/generalisable);
With more categories correct responses are less likely to arise by chance (making it more valid);
If this meant there were more results overall, it would make the findings more reliable;
8(c) Ruby is concerned that sometimes she will not hear Delphine’s noises so wants to use a second observer to help
her.
8(c)(i) Outline two disadvantages of having a second observer. 2
1 mark for outline of a disadvantage ×2
They will be new so less skilled at understanding the meaning of the noises;
The second observer may make different observations from Ruby / the results may lack inter-observer reliability;
The second observer would be unfamiliar and may disturb Delphine;
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 12, 13 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-mj-23-q09
May/June 2022 · Paper 23 · Question 9 · 8 marks
9 Dr Felix is conducting a natural experiment to test whether seeing television advertisements for a charity for older
people makes participants behave more positively towards them. He measures this by giving a questionnaire
about behaviour towards older people to a group of students. He gives the students the questionnaire one week
before the advertisements appear on television and again the week after.
© UCLES 2022 Page 13 of 18
9(a) Explain what is meant by a ‘natural experiment’, using this study as an example. 2
1 mark for explanation , 1 mark for link
the IV cannot be manipulated = 1 (explanation)
this was before or after exposure to the adverts = 1 (link)
Dr Felix could not control exposure to the adverts = 1 (link)
so the two conditions of the experiment could not be controlled, they / the time had to be chosen = 1 (explanation)
9(b) Suggest one problem with natural experiments, using this study as an example. 2
1 mark for problem, 1 mark for link
Fewer controls are possible than in a laboratory experiment / cannot be sure (that only the) IV is affecting DV; (problem)
May be more positive as had nice old lecturer (not ads) / unhelpful as didn’t see adverts / not sure if adverts are cause;
(link)
9(c)
Dr Felix thinks it could be better to use covert observations rather than questionnaires to measure positive
behaviour towards older people. He could have several older people as stooges, pretending to struggle with their
shopping, and he could observe how the students behave.
9(c)(i) Suggest one advantage of using covert observation rather than questionnaires in this study. 2
1 mark for advantage, 1 mark for link
The observer is hidden so they do not cause social desirability; (advantage)
So the students won’t say they would behave positively to old people just to be acceptable; (link)
A covert observer wouldn’t cause demand characteristics; (advantage)
So the students won’t say positive things about old people just because they knew the aim; (link)
© UCLES 2022 Page 14 of 18
9(c)(ii) Suggest one disadvantage of using covert observation rather than questionnaires in this study. 2
1 mark for disadvantage, 1 mark for link
It would be harder to gain consent; (disadvantage)
Because you wouldn’t ask to observe people but can ask to fill in a questionnaire; (link)
It would be impossible for participants to withdraw; (disadvantage)
Because they wouldn’t know about an observation but could refuse a questionnaire; (link)
© UCLES 2022 Page 15 of 18
Official mark scheme pages: 13, 14, 15 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-mj-23-q10
May/June 2022 · Paper 23 · Question 10 · 14 marks
10 Jimmy wants to investigate individual differences in dreams. He is interested in many differences between
participants, such as whether each individual:
• has consistent dream content
• has meaningful dreams
• dreams in colour.
10(a) Describe how Jimmy could conduct a study using an interview to investigate at least two individual differences in 10
dreams.
Three majors for an interview are:
(a) content of questions asked (detail: topics, examples about at least two individual differences)
(b) interview structure detail (detail: evidence of structured/semi/unstructured, also face-to-face/online/telephone)
(c) style of questions asked e.g. open and closed (detail: accurate examples of open and closed)
The minors are:
where – location of participants when being interviewed
who – participants (people who recall their dreams)
Other details for replication:
• lie questions
• filler questions
• sampling technique
• sample size
• description of how data will analysed, e.g. use of averages/bar charts
• ethical issues
Other appropriate responses should also be credited.
© UCLES 2022 Page 16 of 18
10(a) Mark according to the levels of response criteria below:
Level 3 (8–10 marks)
• Response is described in sufficient detail to be replicable (i.e. what and how).
• Response may have a minor omission (i.e. who or where).
• Use of psychological terminology is accurate and comprehensive.
Level 2 (5–7 marks)
• Response is in some detail.
• Response has minor omission(s) (i.e. who and/or where).
• Use of psychological terminology is accurate.
Level 1 (1–4 marks)
• Response is basic in detail.
• Response has major omission(s).
• If response is impossible to conduct max. 2.
• Use of psychological terminology is mainly accurate.
Level 0 (0 marks)
No response worthy of credit.
© UCLES 2022 Page 17 of 18
10(b) Identify one practical weakness/limitation with the procedure you have described in your answer to part (a) and 4
suggest how your study might be done differently to overcome the problem.
Do not refer to ethics or sampling in your answer.
Answer will depend on problem identified. If the problem was an obvious omission in (a), fewer marks will have been
awarded in (a), so they can be awarded here.
Problems may, for example, be matters of:
Validity
• operationalisation
• difficulty with lying / social desirability
• difficulty with response biases
Reliability
• inter-rater consistency
• intra-rater consistency.
This list is not exhaustive and other appropriate responses should also be credited.
Marks Comment
3–4 Appropriate problem identified.
Appropriate solution is clearly described.
2 Appropriate problem identified.
plus
EITHER Explanation of why it is a problem
OR Ineffectual but possible solution described.
1 Appropriate problem identified.
Little or no justification.
0 No response worthy of credit
© UCLES 2022 Page 18 of 18
Official mark scheme pages: 16, 17, 18 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-on-21-q01
Oct/Nov 2022 · Paper 21 · Question 1 · 2 marks
1 The study by Milgram (obedience) used a shock generator, which 2
looked real.
Explain why it was necessary that the shock generator looked real.
1 mark identification of reason (may be generic)
Ignore REP e.g. ‘so they believed the situation was real’.
1 mark detail (must have link).
To avoid demand characteristics / participants guessing the aim; (generic
reason).
Otherwise, participants might have gone to the full voltage / known they
couldn’t hurt anyone; (detailed link).
© UCLES 2022 Page 4 of 19
Official mark scheme pages: 4 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-on-21-q02
Oct/Nov 2022 · Paper 21 · Question 2 · 6 marks
2 Bill has two groups of children in his study and writes a directional
hypothesis. It states that ‘Older children are more obedient than
younger children’. He then decides that this might not be correct and
uses a non-directional hypothesis instead.
2(a) Suggest a non-directional hypothesis for Bill’s study. 1
1 mark for non-directional hypothesis (must be a testable statement, not an
aim, not a question).
Older and younger children will differ in their obedience;
Children of different ages will have different levels of obedience;
There is a difference in obedience between younger and older children;
There will be a correlation/relationship between age and obedience = 0 [not
experimental]
There will be no difference/correlation between age and obedience = 0 [null]
2(b) State how Bill will find the mode for the age of the group of younger 1
children.
1 mark for how to find mode (linked).
Find the most frequent age of (all) the (young) children (in years/months) =
1
2(c) Suggest two reasons why it could be ethically more difficult to 4
measure obedience in children than in adults.
1 mark for reason 2.
1 mark for link to obedience.
Children cannot consent / are too young to give informed consent; (reason)
So, they might not know what ‘obedience’ means (so wouldn’t know what
they were agreeing to); (link)
Children are more at risk of harm / unaware of the risks / vulnerable to
pressure from adults / more easily upset than adults; (reason)
So may follow orders / be obedient even though it will upset them; (link)
This would put them at risk of harm as they may be obedient when they
really don’t want to be; (link)
Children may not be able to exercise their right to withdraw; (reason)
As they are taught to be obedient to adults; (link).
© UCLES 2022 Page 5 of 19
Official mark scheme pages: 5 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-on-21-q03
Oct/Nov 2022 · Paper 21 · Question 3 · 4 marks
3 Describe two features of a laboratory experiment. Use a different 4
example from the study by Schachter and Singer (two factors in
emotion) for each feature.
1 mark per feature 2.
1 mark per link to Schachter and Singer study [can get this mark without the
feature mark].
Has a manipulated independent variable; (feature)
They changed anger or euphoria (with a stooge) / changed adrenalin or
saline (by injection) / INF or MIS INF; (link)
Has a measured dependent variable; (feature)
They scored angry or euphoric behaviour; (link)
Has controls/standardisation; (feature)
The stooge was scripted; (link)
Injection (of saline/adrenalin) seemed the same; (link).
© UCLES 2022 Page 6 of 19
Official mark scheme pages: 6 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-on-21-q04
Oct/Nov 2022 · Paper 21 · Question 4 · 3 marks
4 Baron-Cohen et al. (eyes test) presented the eyes test results on a
graph showing the percentage of participants who gained each score.
The graph is shown in Fig. 1.
4(a) Label the axes on Fig. 1, using the answer spaces below. 2
1 mark for correct X-axis label = ‘Eyes Test (score)’
1 mark for correct Y-axis label = ‘Percentage of participants/subjects’
4(b) Name the type of distribution shown in Fig. 1. 1
Normal (distribution) = 1 mark (definitive).
© UCLES 2022 Page 7 of 19
Official mark scheme pages: 7 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-on-21-q05
Oct/Nov 2022 · Paper 21 · Question 5 · 1 marks
5 Participants in a study are learning to throw a ball through a hoop. 1
Suggest how the variable of ‘learning’ could be operationalised in this
study.
1 mark for operational definition of operant conditioning of learning to throw
a ball through a hoop.
Their accuracy of getting the ball through the hoop increases;
How many balls go through the hoop on each trial;
How fast they can get (10) balls through the hoop;
How many minutes it takes before they get balls into the hoop accurately.
© UCLES 2022 Page 8 of 19
Official mark scheme pages: 8 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-on-21-q06
Oct/Nov 2022 · Paper 21 · Question 6 · 6 marks
6 Describe the ethical guidelines of ‘species and strain’ and ‘numbers’ in 6
relation to animals, using any examples.
Definitions/detail: up to a maximum of 4 marks for each guideline.
Examples: maximum of 2 marks for each guideline.
Examples can be from any studies (core studies, other studies, candidate’s
own studies).
Max. 4 if no examples or if only one type of the guidelines is described.
Species and strain:
The species/strain which is least likely to become distressed should be
chosen;
That is able to fulfil the requirements of the study (i.e. it is a compromise);
Each species has different needs e.g. for warmth / cover / space for
exercise / to avoid overcrowding;
The needs of each species may differ with age / sex / reproductive stage;
Don’t use endangered species;
e.g. Pepperberg used a parrot, which is a domesticated species so not
distressed by human interaction;
e.g. Yamamoto et al. needed to use chimpanzees which may be distressed
as helping is a complex concept.
Number:
The smallest number of animals possible should be used (so that the
smallest number of animals experience harm/distress);
However, enough should be used to achieve valid/reliable results;
e.g. Pepperberg only used 1 parrot / only Alex (which is good);
e.g. Yamamoto et al. only used 5 / a small number of chimpanzees (which is
good).
© UCLES 2022 Page 9 of 19
Official mark scheme pages: 9 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-on-21-q07
Oct/Nov 2022 · Paper 21 · Question 7 · 7 marks
7 Kate is using a questionnaire to investigate how participants could feel
about people who are older than them. The emotions she is
investigating are:
• boredom
• empathy
• fear
• happiness.
7(a)(i) Kate needs to define each of these emotions. 2
Suggest how Kate could operationalise two of the emotions that she is
investigating.
1 mark for operationalisation 2 [Accept definition, operationalisation or
measure] Does not have to be linked.
boredom = (finding an older person) dull / uninspiring / not interesting;
empathy = understanding feelings (how the older person feels);
fear = being scared / worrying (that the older may harm you);
happiness = feeling positively (about the older person).
These are examples, there will be many acceptable definitions.
7(a)(ii) For one of your suggestions in (a)(i): 1
Explain why Kate could misinterpret this emotion when gathering data
in her study.
1 mark for explanation must be of one of the emotions from 7(a)(i) (NO mark
for restating emotion).
boredom = dull:
The participants might be bored themselves, so appear to find the older
person boring;
empathy = understand feelings:
The participants could be pretending to understand e.g. out of courtesy;
fear = worry:
Fear might alternatively be based on worry for or about someone or
something other than yourself;
happiness = feeling positive:
Participants may be happy for some other reason, so appear to be linking
happiness with the older person.
© UCLES 2022 Page 10 of 19
7(b) Kate measures how strongly the participants feel each emotion about
people who are older than them, using a score from 0–10.
7(b)(i) Kate wants to find the median ‘happiness’ score. Outline how to find a 1
median score.
1 mark for explanation (can be generic).
Put all the (happiness) scores in rank order / in a list from biggest to
smallest, the middle one is the median;
Find the middle number of the scores in rank order;
Find the middle number of the scores = 0
7(b)(ii) Kate wants to use a graph to plot the median results for each of the 1
four emotions.
Name the most appropriate type of graph for Kate to use.
1 mark for identification of bar chart/bar graph (definitive).
7(b)(iii) Kate calculated the standard deviation of scores for each emotion. The 2
standard deviations are shown in Table 1.
Table 1
Emotion boredom empathy fear happiness
Standard deviation 1.4 3.2 2.2 2.6
Explain which emotion had the widest spread of scores.
1 mark for identification of ‘empathy’ (definitive).
1 mark for explanation (can be generic).
Empathy; (identification)
Because this has the largest/highest standard deviation (showing these
scores had the most variation/dispersion); (explanation)
Because 3.2 is the biggest; (explanation).
© UCLES 2022 Page 11 of 19
Official mark scheme pages: 10, 11 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-on-21-q08
Oct/Nov 2022 · Paper 21 · Question 8 · 9 marks
8 Gill is planning a structured interview about disruptions to sleep
patterns. She is investigating the effects of work, sport and family. She
begins by writing four questions:
A Describe how your sleep pattern changes when extra family
members stay for the night.
B How long do you sleep after you have participated in sport
compared to when you have not participated in sport? More time /
less time.
C Is your sleep quality in the week compared to the weekend better,
worse or about the same?
D Explain how any other factors affect your sleep patterns.
8(a) Identify one closed question from A to D. 1
1 mark for B or C (definitive).
Accept responses that have copied out the question instead of giving a
letter.
8(b) Identify one open question from A to D. 1
1 mark for A or D (definitive).
Accept responses that have copied out the question instead of giving a
letter.
© UCLES 2022 Page 12 of 19
8(c) Gill plans two more questions to use in her structured interview: 2
E Is your sleep better or worse if you eat a meal close to bedtime?
Better / worse.
F Explain how your sleep pattern is affected if you work at night.
Suggest one problem that Gill could have when using one of the new
questions.
1 mark for identification of problem (may be generic).
1 mark for link.
NO mark for stating E or F.
(E) Is your sleep better or worse if you eat a meal close to bedtime?
Better / worse:
• (Because it is a closed question) the choices are limited / the response
offers little understanding; (generic problem)
• They may want to say ‘it makes no difference’ but this isn’t possible;
(link)
• (Because it is a closed question) they can’t elaborate their answer;
(generic problem)
• Participants may want to say ‘it depends on what / how much I eat’ but
couldn’t; (link)
(F) Explain how your sleep pattern is affected if you work at night:
• (Because it is an open question) their answer could need interpretation;
(generic problem)
• (Because it is an open question) the researcher could be subjective in
understanding their answer; (generic problem)
• If they say ‘I don’t do shift work very often so the effect is minor’, Gill
won’t know what the effect is; (link)
• (invasion of) privacy; (generic problem)
8(d) Gill’s friend reads the six questions and says it would be better if she
conducted a semi-structured interview instead of her structured
interview.
8(d)(i) Explain what makes Gill’s interview a structured interview. 1
1 mark for only fixed questions / cannot ask extra questions / questions the
same for all participants = 1
8(d)(ii) Suggest how Gill could change her structured interview into a semi- 1
structured interview.
1 mark for suggestion.
Gill would make up new questions for each participant = 1
Use questions based on what (each) participant said / make up new
questions that follow on (from their answers) = 1
© UCLES 2022 Page 13 of 19
8(e) Gill notices that people who look like they have not slept well often 3
refuse to take part in the study.
Explain how this problem could affect the results of Gill’s study.
1 mark for correct use of a term (e.g. low validity, sample bias,
unrepresentative or less generalisable).
1 mark for identification of the nature of the problem.
1 mark for link explaining the effect on the results.
This makes the sample biased / unrepresentative / lowers validity / lowers
generalisability; (term)
The participants/results will all be very similar; (generic problem)
Participants with poor sleep will be less frequent in the sample (than in the
whole population); (problem)
(Using only people with good sleep) will make it seem that people sleep
better than they really do; (linked effect).
© UCLES 2022 Page 14 of 19
Official mark scheme pages: 12, 13, 14 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-on-21-q09
Oct/Nov 2022 · Paper 21 · Question 9 · 8 marks
9 Manas is a researcher at a drug company and is conducting an
experiment to test a new drug for patients who have phobias. The drug
is a clear, tasteless liquid that should help the patients to relax during
therapy. Manas selects 10 patients who will take the new drug and 10
other patients who will be given water, which is also clear and
tasteless. The patients in both groups believe they are taking the new
drug.
9(a) Identify the experimental condition and the control condition in this 1
experiment.
1 mark for identifying both conditions (definitive answers).
Answers MUST be in the correct space (unless unambiguously indicated
otherwise).
experimental condition = (10 patients being given) the (new) drug
control condition = (10 patients being given) water/placebo.
9(b) Manas has controlled two variables. The drug is:
• a clear liquid
• tasteless
9(b)(i) Suggest two other controls that could be used in this experiment to 2
keep the experimental condition and the control condition as similar
as possible.
1 mark for a control 2.
The liquids should be labelled / presented in the same way (e.g. both in a
beaker);
Taken at the same temperature;
The drug should have no smell / smell like water;
The liquids should look/taste the same = 0 marks (repetition from stem).
9(b)(ii) Explain why it is important to keep the experimental condition and the 1
control condition as similar as possible.
1 mark for generic explanation of the purpose of controls.
To ensure that any differences / changes in the DV (phobia reduction) are
due only to the IV (the drug).
© UCLES 2022 Page 15 of 19
9(c) Suggest two ethical problems with this experiment. 4
1 mark for identification of problem 2.
1 mark for link.
Informed consent; (problem)
Because the participants do not know whether they are receiving the drug or
not; (link)
Participants must not know whether they are receiving the drug or not, so
they cannot give fully informed consent = 2
Deception / they are being lied to; (problem)
they may believe they are getting the drug, which will not be true if they are
in the control group; (link)
Protection from harm (physical) / it might be dangerous; (problem)
participants in the drug group may be physically harmed by the drug as it is
still being tested; (link)
Protection from harm (psychological); (problem)
control participants may suffer in therapy if they try too hard if they think they
are getting the drug; (link)
control participants may not make progress in therapy because they are
only getting water; (link).
© UCLES 2022 Page 16 of 19
Official mark scheme pages: 15, 16 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-on-21-q10
Oct/Nov 2022 · Paper 21 · Question 10 · 14 marks
10 Dr Angelo wants to investigate how young children respond when
their teachers are helpful. She has seen teachers being helpful to
children in the classroom and in the playground.
10(a) Describe how Dr Angelo can conduct an observational study to 10
investigate the behaviour of children when their teachers are helpful.
Three majors for an observational study are:
(a) behaviours – that will be recorded e.g. two named (detail e.g.
definition/operationalisation of behavioural categories) if structured.
(b) observational technique – participant/non-participant (not interacting
with children; sitting away from class at back of room)
• naturalistic/controlled (teacher helps by giving pointers on
questions; to every child / every 5 mins)
• covert (hidden/unaware; dinner ladies / classroom assistant) / overt
(c) further observational technique:
• participant/non-participant (detail: how achieved, in one further
case)
• naturalistic/controlled
• covert/overt
The minors are:
location of participants when data is collected (classroom/playground)
participants (school children)
Also:
• sampling technique
• sample size
• description of how tallying will be done
• description of how data will be analysed, e.g. use of averages / bar
charts
• ethical issues
Other appropriate responses should also be credited.
© UCLES 2022 Page 17 of 19
10(a) Mark according to the levels of response criteria below:
Level 3 (8–10 marks)
• Response is described in sufficient detail to be replicable (i.e. what
and how).
• Response may have a minor omission (i.e. who or where).
• Use of psychological terminology is accurate and comprehensive.
Level 2 (5–7 marks)
• Response is in some detail.
• Response has minor omission(s) (i.e. who and/or where).
• Use of psychological terminology is accurate.
Level 1 (1–4 marks)
• Response is basic in detail.
• Response has major omission(s).
• If response is impossible to conduct max. 2.
• Use of psychological terminology is mainly accurate.
Level 0 (0 marks)
No response worthy of credit.
© UCLES 2022 Page 18 of 19
10(b) Identify one practical weakness/limitation with the procedure you have 4
described in your answer to part (a) and suggest how your study might
be done differently to overcome the problem.
Do not refer to ethics or sampling in your answer.
Answer will depend on problem identified. If the problem was an obvious
omission in (a), fewer marks will have been awarded in (a), so they can be
awarded here.
Problems may, for example, be matters of:
Validity:
• operationalisation
• difficulty with lying / social desirability
• difficulty with response biases
Reliability:
• inter-rater consistency
• intra-rater consistency
This list is not exhaustive and other appropriate responses should also be
credited.
10(b)
marks comment
3–4 Appropriate problem identified.
Appropriate solution is clearly described.
2 Appropriate problem identified.
Plus EITHER
Explanation of why it is a problem.
OR
Ineffectual but possible solution described.
1 Appropriate problem identified.
Little or no justification.
0 No response worthy of credit
© UCLES 2022 Page 19 of 19
Official mark scheme pages: 17, 18, 19 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-on-22-q01
Oct/Nov 2022 · Paper 22 · Question 1 · 2 marks
1 The hypothesis for a study is ‘Adults with children worry more than
adults without children’.
1(a) State whether this is a directional hypothesis or a non-directional 1
hypothesis. Include a reason for your answer.
Award 1 mark for the correct answer and a reason. No mark for stating
‘directional’ alone.
directional/one-tailed (hypothesis), because it says that the variable of
worrying will be greater in one condition than the other = 1
directional/one-tailed (hypothesis), because it says that the variable of
worrying will be greater in some adults than others rather than just saying
they will be different = 1
1(b) Write a null hypothesis for this study. 1
1 mark for null hypothesis.
There will be no difference between worrying in adults with and without
children; 1
There will be no difference in worrying between adults with and without
children; 1
Any difference between the worrying of participants with or without children
is due to chance; 1
One or two-tailed alternative hypotheses, and correlational nulls, are
incorrect.
There will be no difference between worrying in adults and children = 0
(incorrect).
There is no correlation/relationship… = 0
© UCLES 2022 Page 4 of 18
Official mark scheme pages: 4 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-on-22-q02
Oct/Nov 2022 · Paper 22 · Question 2 · 3 marks
2 From the study by Yamamoto et al. (chimpanzee helping):
2(a) Outline what is meant by ‘reliability’, using this study as an example. 2
1 mark for simple explanation (generic).
1 mark for link to reliability in Yamamoto.
Consistency (of a procedure, task or measure) = 1 (explanation).
E.g. All chimps pre-trained with apparatus so they would be equally good at
the task = 1 (link to reliability).
When using the same procedure/study/experiment produces the same
results = 1 (explanation).
Poor reliability because one chimp always gave the brush = 1 (link to
reliability).
Poor reliability because one chimp peeped over = 1 (link to reliability).
To be reliable, measures must test the phenomenon in the same way each
time = 1 mark (explanation).
Only the first offer counted so it was equally difficult for all chimps to offer
help = 1 (link to reliability).
It was reliable as trials were consistent, 5 minutes max, so no chimp had
longer to help = 2 (explanation + link).
Replication = 0
Getting the same results (in different situations) = 0
2(b) Suggest one way to improve reliability in this study. 1
1 mark for simple explanation (linked).
Any improvement to procedure/task/measurement to make it more
consistent e.g. types of chimpanzee, room conditions.
Use same chimpanzee; same age chimpanzee (rather than mother/child).
Use chimpanzees with same level of experience/knowledge.
Test-retest/inter-rater reliability are measures of reliability not ways to
improve. Identification = 0. However, can be creditworthy if description fully
justifies improvement.
© UCLES 2022 Page 5 of 18
Official mark scheme pages: 5 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-on-22-q03
Oct/Nov 2022 · Paper 22 · Question 3 · 5 marks
3 In the study by Pepperberg (parrot learning), quantitative data was
collected from the questions about ‘same’ and ‘different’.
3(a) Outline what was observed to produce the quantitative data in this 1
study.
1 mark for categories (any two):
colour, shape, matter = 1
whether the parrot’s category response was correct (e.g. colour);
How many times Alex correctly chose same and different = 0
3(b) Qualitative data can also be useful in studies. Pepperberg could have
collected qualitative data by observing the parrot.
3(b)(i) Describe what is meant by ‘qualitative data’. 1
1 mark for meaning.
Descriptive data / in depth data / detailed data;
Words / not numerical / subjective = 0
3(b)(ii) Describe one behaviour that could have been observed to produce 1
qualitative data in this study.
1 mark for description of behaviour.
Verbal behaviour (feedback by Alex);
What the parrot was doing when it was fidgeting;
Where the parrot flew to when it flew away;
3(b)(iii) Explain why qualitative data for the behaviour you identified in (b)(ii) 2
would have been useful in this study.
1 mark for suggestion of why useful (can be generic).
1 mark detail (must have a link for 2 marks).
Gives insight into avian thinking / how Alex understands the words he uses
= 2
[Fidgeting] It could indicate frustration; (suggestion).
E.g. if the parrot fidgeted it might mean he didn’t really know the answer and
was guessing; (linked detail).
[Fidgeting] It could indicate level of concentration; (suggestion).
E.g. if the parrot wasn’t concentrating he might give the wrong answer even
though he understood; (linked detail).
[Flying away / eating] It could limit whether the parrot was listening;
(suggestion).
E.g. if he was flying/eating he might not listen to the question so be unable
to answer; (linked detail).
© UCLES 2022 Page 6 of 18
Official mark scheme pages: 6 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-on-22-q04
Oct/Nov 2022 · Paper 22 · Question 4 · 4 marks
4 In the study by Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreams), brain activity 4
during sleep was recorded using an EEG (electroencephalograph).
Another way to record brain activity is with fMRI (functional magnetic
resonance imaging).
Suggest two reasons why using an EEG to record brain activity during
sleep is a more appropriate choice than using an fMRI.
1 mark for reason (comparison) } 2.
1 mark for link to sleep } No link mark without reason.
fMRI is very noisy; an EEG is silent; (reason).
this might stop then sleeping / disrupt their dreams; (link).
EEG only needs wires, an fMRI is a whole big machine; (reason).
so, an EEG is less distressing so more likely to sleep well; (link).
fMRI is dangerous (if you have anything magnetic inside the body);
(reason).
limits variety of participants / generalisability as people with metal in them
might sleep differently; (link).
being in an fMRI can trigger claustrophobia; (reason).
limits variety of participants / generalisability as claustrophobics might sleep
better/worse generally; (link).
EEG can record REM and nREM; (reason).
So, gives better information about sleep than an fMRI; (link).
Description of EEG/fMRI = 0
© UCLES 2022 Page 7 of 18
Official mark scheme pages: 7 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-on-22-q05
Oct/Nov 2022 · Paper 22 · Question 5 · 2 marks
5 In the study by Andrade (doodling), a median could have been 2
calculated for the results of the doodling group and the control group.
Outline how a median could have been calculated for the number of
names recalled by each group in this study.
1 mark for formula/description of median.
1 mark for link.
Put scores in numerical/rank order and find middle score (if 2 middles add
together and halve); (median).
Using all the (name) recall scores of either doodlers or non-doodlers; (link).
For the doodling or control condition she would put all the name recall
scores in order and find the middle one = 2 (median and link).
Put scores in numerical/rank order, 2 middles add together and halve;
(median).
© UCLES 2022 Page 8 of 18
Official mark scheme pages: 8 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-on-22-q06
Oct/Nov 2022 · Paper 22 · Question 6 · 6 marks
6 Describe the ethical guidelines of ‘deception’ and ‘confidentiality’, 6
using any examples.
4 marks max per guideline for definition and detail.
1 mark for each example that is linked to a guideline, up to a maximum of 2
per guideline.
Examples can include examples from any research (core studies, other
studies, candidate’s own studies).
Max 4 if no examples or if only one of the guidelines is described.
Deception: misinforming participants; failing to inform (1 for definition).
Confidentiality: ensuring participants’ information is anonymous / safe / not
made public; (1 for definition).
Deception:
• participants should not be lied to / is when participants are lied to (about
the aim); (1 definition)
• as this means they cannot give informed consent / may be distressed /
might have wanted to withdraw; (+1 detail)
• e.g. in Milgram the participants were told they were doing a study about
memory/learning/punishment (when in fact is was about obedience) /
were told the shocks were real; (1 for e.g.)
• but sometimes deception is essential to avoid demand characteristics;
(+1 detail)
• Milgram’s participants would have gone to 450V if they knew that the
shocks were not real; (+1 e.g.)
• Piliavin et al.’s participants thought the victim was really drunk/ill; (+
e.g.)
• Laney et al.’s participants were lied to about the ‘generated profile’
(from the FHI); (+1 e.g.)
• Laney et al.’s participants were misled about food preferences and
personality; (+1 e.g.)
• If participants are deceived, they should be debriefed (although this
may not be possible in field experiments)
Confidentiality:
• Participants should not be individually identifiable/named; (1 definition)
• participants can be identified by numbers instead of names; (+1 detail)
• Nor should locations such as schools/workplaces; (+1 detail)
• So the number of researchers with access to this should be limited; (+1
detail)
• And records should be stored safely/securely; (+1 detail)
• for example, we don’t know the name of Saavedra and Silverman’s boy:
(+1 e.g.)
• although we know some details e.g. Hispanic, age, it’s not enough to
identify him; (+1 e.g.)
• the participants in Dement and Kleitman were identified by their initials;
(+1 e.g.)
© UCLES 2022 Page 9 of 18
Official mark scheme pages: 9 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-on-22-q07
Oct/Nov 2022 · Paper 22 · Question 7 · 6 marks
7 Shula is investigating whether there are differences in the way that
younger and older people behave when they see each other. She is
using observations to record the following behaviours:
• smiling
• waving
• shouting
7(a) Explain whether Shula is conducting a structured observation or an 2
unstructured observation.
1 mark for explanation (generic).
1 mark for link.
There is no mark for identifying ‘structured’.
Structured because she is using behaviour categories; (explanation).
These are the three behaviours / used when people see each other /
smiling, waving, shouting; (link).
7(b)(i) Explain why it would be better for Shula to conduct a covert 2
observation than an overt observation.
1 mark for reason it would be better (generic).
1 mark for link.
The participants would be unaware of her presence / would behave
normally; (reason).
So, they wouldn’t alter their behaviours when they see others because she
was there / they were being watched; (link).
7(b)(ii) Suggest one problem with Shula conducting a covert observation. 2
1 mark for problem (may be generic).
1 mark for link.
The participants would not be able to give consent in a private place;
(reason).
Because they wouldn’t know their greeting behaviour was being observed If
the greeting was in a non-public place; (link).
But is not a valid point if the meeting was in a public place because consent
would not be needed; (link).
The participants might move out of Shula’s view (because she couldn’t
break cover); (reason).
So, her records of their greeting behaviour would be incomplete; (link).
The observer might not be able to clearly observe expressions; (reason).
So, her observations, smile or not, might not be accurate.
The participants would not be able to explain reason for behaviour (if asked)
because not know being observed.
© UCLES 2022 Page 10 of 18
Official mark scheme pages: 10 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-on-22-q08
Oct/Nov 2022 · Paper 22 · Question 8 · 10 marks
8 Mahi is studying the effect of music on emotions. In part of her study
she is collecting data from 20 participants about their emotional
responses to songs. She is using the following categories to observe
emotional responses:
• angry
• bored
• happy
• relaxed
8(a)(i) Suggest how Mahi could operationalise two of these categories of 2
observed emotional responses.
1 mark for definition 2.
Angry e.g. they are frowning;
Bored e.g. they are listless/fidgety/doodling;
Happy e.g. they are smiling;
Relaxed e.g. they are sitting in a slouched/lazy position;
These are examples, there will be many acceptable definitions.
‘Observations’ must be observable for an observer (i.e. a person) not a
machine.
8(a)(ii) For one of your suggestions for the operationalisation of a category in 1
part 8(a)(i):
Explain why Mahi could misinterpret or incorrectly categorise an
observed emotional response of a participant in her study.
1 mark for explanation. NO mark for identifying the category.
Angry = they are frowning:
They might be frowning because they don’t understand / because they
haven’t heard what someone said;
Bored = they are listless/fidgety/doodling:
We might fidget because we are in pain or itch (not because we are bored);
Happy = are smiling:
For some people, smiling might just be ‘content’ (not happy);
Relaxed = they are sitting in a slouched/lazy position:
They might just have a bad posture but not be relaxed / they might be bored
(and not relaxed);
These are examples, there will be many acceptable responses.
© UCLES 2022 Page 11 of 18
8(b) Mahi is collecting data in the table below. This is the number of 3
participants who showed each of the four emotional responses. She
wants to display this data on a bar chart.
Observed emotional responses
angry bored happy relaxed
Number of participants showing
each emotional response
Label the axes for the bar chart that Mahi will use to display her
results.
1 mark: y-axis label number of participants/people.
1 mark: y-axis units (for frequency: max 20).
1 mark: x-axis label ‘observed emotional responses’ / ‘emotions’.
1 mark: x-axis categories angry, bored, happy, relaxed (must have all 4).
8(c) In a second study, Mahi’s participants will listen to different types of
music. She expects that fast music will make the participants feel
happy and slow music will make them feel unhappy.
8(c)(i) Explain one ethical problem with the design of this study. Do not refer 2
to deception or confidentiality in your answer.
1 mark for identifying a relevant ethical issue.
1 mark for linked detail.
(Failure to protect from psychological) harm; (ethical issue).
Because the people who hear a sad song may leave still sad; (linked detail).
(no) Informed consent; (ethical issue).
the participants are consenting to listening to music, not the effect it will
have on them; (linked detail).
© UCLES 2022 Page 12 of 18
8(c)(ii) Suggest one way that Mahi could solve the ethical problem you 2
explained in part 8(c)(i).
1 mark for identifying a solution to the ethical issue.
1 mark for detail (e.g. details of implementing the solution or how it solves
the problem).
Always return the participants to a normal mood; (identification of solution).
By playing them fast music at the end of the study; (detail).
Inform the participants about the possible effect of the study; (identification
of solution).
By asking them to consent to having their mood changed (but not saying
how); (detail).
Gain consent; (identification of solution).
Protect from harm; (identification of solution).
© UCLES 2022 Page 13 of 18
Official mark scheme pages: 11, 12, 13 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-on-22-q09
Oct/Nov 2022 · Paper 22 · Question 9 · 8 marks
9 Syd is using an experiment to test whether epinephrine affects sleep.
He has two groups of participants; one group receives an epinephrine
injection and the other group receives a saline injection. The
participants do not know what their injection contains. Each
participant is tested at a town centre laboratory on a different night
over a 20-night period. The town centre is very busy at the weekend
but quiet during the week.
9(a) Explain why it is important that participants do not know which 2
condition they are in during an experiment.
1 mark for reason why.
1 mark for detail (can be linked but does not have to be).
So that they are not affected by expectations / demand characteristics / do
not alter their behaviour; (reason).
As this would hide the effect of the IV on the DV / mean that causality could
not be determined; (detail).
This would mean Syd would not know if expectation or adrenalin was
affecting their sleep; (linked detail).
9(b) Identify Syd’s experimental design. Include a reason for your answer. 2
1 mark for identifying independent groups design / measures (do not accept
‘independent’ alone).
1 mark for linked explanation.
Independent measures/groups; (identification of design).
Because the epinephrine and control groups have different people in them;
(linked explanation).
9(c) Suggest one participant variable that could affect Syd’s experiment. 2
1 mark for suggesting a participant variable.
1 mark for link (e.g. why it is important in Syd’s study / the effect if would
have on his results).
People may react differently to adrenalin; (participant variable).
differences in sleep between groups may be partly due to the different
participants’ reaction; (detail).
People may have different sleep needs/habits/patterns; (participant
variable).
differences between groups may be due participants’ normal sleep rather
than epinephrine; (detail).
© UCLES 2022 Page 14 of 18
9(d) Suggest one situational variable that could affect Syd’s experiment. 2
1 mark for suggesting a situational variable.
1 mark for link (e.g. why it is important in Syd’s study / the effect it would
have on his results).
People may be disrupted by the noise outside; (situational variable).
Differences between groups may be caused by when in the week they are
tested; (detail).
People may work harder at weekends, this may affect their sleep;
(situational variable).
Differences in sleep between groups could be caused by when in the week
they are tested; (detail).
© UCLES 2022 Page 15 of 18
Official mark scheme pages: 14, 15 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-on-22-q10
Oct/Nov 2022 · Paper 22 · Question 10 · 14 marks
10 Dr Mitchell wants to investigate how physically active people are, and
he believes that this may be related to how much they use social
media.
10(a) Describe how Dr Mitchell could conduct a correlational study to 10
investigate the relationship between how physically active people are
and how much they use social media.
To correlate data, the variables must be at least ordinal scales, being
quantitative alone is not enough.
Three majors for a correlational study are:
(a) Variable 1 – how physically active people are (detail: correct
operationalisation and quantification).
(b) Variable 2 – use of social media (detail: correct operationalisation and
quantification).
(c) Technique 2 – for producing/collecting data i.e. procedure (detail: e.g.
tests, observations, questionnaires).
The minors are:
• location of participants when completing the questionnaire / how it is
distributed
• participants, sampling technique
Also:
• a statement about whether a positive or negative correlation is expected
• sample size
• description of how data will analysed, e.g. use of scattergram
• ethical issues
Other appropriate responses should also be credited.
© UCLES 2022 Page 16 of 18
10(a) Mark according to the levels of response criteria below:
Level 3 (8–10 marks)
• Response is described in sufficient detail to be replicable (i.e. what
and how).
• Response may have a minor omission (i.e. who or where).
• Use of psychological terminology is accurate and comprehensive.
Level 2 (5–7 marks)
• Response is in some detail.
• Response has minor omission(s) (i.e. who and/or where).
• Use of psychological terminology is accurate.
Level 1 (1–4 marks)
• Response is basic in detail.
• Response has major omission(s).
• If response is impossible to conduct max. 2.
• Use of psychological terminology is mainly accurate.
Level 0 (0 marks)
No response worthy of credit.
10(b) Identify one practical weakness/limitation with the procedure you have 4
described in your answer to part (a) and suggest how your study might
be done differently to overcome the problem.
Do not refer to ethics or sampling in your answer.
Answer will depend on problem identified. If the problem was an obvious
omission in (a), fewer marks will have been awarded in (a), so they can be
awarded here.
Problems may, for example, be matters of:
Validity:
• operationalisation
• difficulty with lying / social desirability
• difficulty with response biases
Reliability:
• inter-rater consistency
• inter-rater consistency
This list is not exhaustive and other appropriate responses should also be
credited.
© UCLES 2022 Page 17 of 18
10(b)
Marks Comment
3–4 Appropriate problem identified.
Appropriate solution is clearly described.
2 Appropriate problem identified.
Plus EITHER
Explanation of why it is a problem.
OR
Ineffectual but possible solution described.
1 Appropriate problem identified.
Little or no justification.
0 No response worthy of credit.
© UCLES 2022 Page 18 of 18
Official mark scheme pages: 16, 17, 18 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-on-23-q01
Oct/Nov 2022 · Paper 23 · Question 1 · 2 marks
1 Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreams) investigated a correlation 2
between the length of the dream narrative and the duration of the REM
period.
Describe the correlation that was found.
1 mark for direction of relationship
1 mark for link
Positive (correlation); (definitive)
Between the number of words (in the narrative) and the time/minutes of
REM sleep; (link)
The longer the duration of REM, the longer the narrative; (link only)
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 5 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-on-23-q02
Oct/Nov 2022 · Paper 23 · Question 2 · 4 marks
2 A researcher is planning to investigate forgetting in very old people.
However, measuring forgetting in very old people can be more
ethically and practically difficult than measuring forgetting in younger
people.
2(a) Suggest one ethical reason why measuring forgetting in very old 2
people can be difficult.
1 mark for ethical reason
1 mark for link i.e. must be relevant to elderly people
Protection from harm; (reason)
Elderly people are likely to be more vulnerable; (reason or link)
So may need additional protection if they find their forgetting distressing;
(link)
Elderly people may be distressed about their forgetting; (reason)
Because it might reveal memories they don’t want to recall / might reveal the
extent of their memory loss; (link)
Consent; (reason)
Elderly people (e.g. with dementia) may lack the capacity to understand the
demands of the study; (reason or link)
So they may be unable to give (fully informed) consent to give information
about their forgetting; (link)
Privacy; (reason)
Elderly people are more reserved than younger people / they will see it as
an invasion of privacy; (reason or link)
So they might find questions about the content of what they have forgotten
too personal; (link)
© UCLES 2022 Page 5 of 17
2(b) Suggest one practical reason why measuring forgetting in very old 2
people can be difficult.
1 mark for practical reason
1 mark for link
The measure of forgetting may lack validity; (reason)
Because elderly people forget a lot, so they might not actually know what
they have forgotten; (link)
Old people may have poor information processing / vision / hearing / speech
/ dementia; (reason)
So the difference is not just age/forgetting/memory; (link)
The measure of forgetting may not be objective / may be affected by social
desirability; (reason)
Because elderly people may be selective about what incidents of forgetting
they reveal; (link)
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 5, 6 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-on-23-q03
Oct/Nov 2022 · Paper 23 · Question 3 · 4 marks
3 In the study by Laney et al. (false memory) two of the questionnaires
used were the Food History Inventory (FHI) and the Restaurant
Questionnaire (RQ).
3(a)(i) Each of these questionnaires included a ‘critical item’. 1
Explain what is meant by a ‘critical item’.
1 mark for explanation
The question/item that is used to collect data / that measures the DV
3(a)(ii) Describe how the critical item in either the FHI or the RQ was 1
measured.
1 mark for scale
On a (rating) scale of 1–8;
(FHI) from 1 = definitely did not happen to 8 = definitely did happen;
(RQ) from 1 definitely yes to 8 definitely no;
3(b) Explain the purpose of the items that are not critical items in the FHI 2
and the RQ.
1 mark for purpose
1 mark for link
Fillers / to distract participants / to hide aim / to avoid demand
characteristics; (purpose)
So participants believed it was about food preferences (and personality);
(link)
So participants did not suspect it was about false memories; (link)
© UCLES 2022 Page 6 of 17
Official mark scheme pages: 6 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-on-23-q04
Oct/Nov 2022 · Paper 23 · Question 4 · 2 marks
4 A teacher records each student’s test results once a week. At the end 2
of the year he calculates the mean of the test results for each student.
Describe how the mean would be calculated in this study.
1 mark for formula/description of mean
1 mark for link
The total of all the scores divided by number of scores (including any zeros)
= 1 (mean)
The scores are each student’s test score and the number of scores is the
number of weeks/tests = 1 (link)
For each student he would divide the total of all their test scores (for the
year) and divide this by the number of tests = 2 (mean and link)
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 7 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-on-23-q05
Oct/Nov 2022 · Paper 23 · Question 5 · 4 marks
5 In the study by Yamamoto et al. (chimpanzee helping), a small sample
of chimpanzees was tested.
5(a) Explain one practical weakness of using this small sample. 2
1 mark for identifying practical weakness.
1 mark for explanation
Cannot generalise / unrepresentative; (from a small sample); (identification)
These (5) chimpanzees may have differed from the majority in terms of their
helpfulness; (explanation)
5(b) Explain one ethical strength of using this small sample. 2
1 mark for identifying ethical strength.
1 mark for explanation
Follows the guideline of ‘numbers’; (identification)
Only five / a few / limits number of individuals used; (explanation)
© UCLES 2022 Page 7 of 17
Official mark scheme pages: 7 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-on-23-q06
Oct/Nov 2022 · Paper 23 · Question 6 · 6 marks
6 Describe laboratory experiments and natural experiments, using any 6
examples.
Definitions/detail: up to a maximum of 4 marks for each type of experiment.
Examples: maximum of 2 marks for each type of experiment.
Examples can be from any studies (core studies, other studies, candidate’s
own studies).
Max 4 if no examples or if only one type of experiment is described.
Laboratory experiment:
Manipulated independent variable;
Has a measured dependent variable;
Has controls/standardisation;
e.g. Andrade doodling / no doodling; (lab IV example)
e.g. (in a lab experiment) an IV could be coffee / no coffee; (made up
example)
e.g. Canli et al:. randomised picture order (controlling familiarity of type) /
controlled participant attention with a fixation cross;
e.g. Dement and Kleitman: controlled for factors affecting sleep as
participants told not to drink alcohol/caffeine;
e.g. Schachter and Singer: controlled the stooges’ behaviours as they were
scripted;
e.g. Andrade: controls also given paper and pencil; all doodling condition
given sheets to constrain doodling;
e.g. Baron-Cohen et al.: access to a glossary controlled for understanding of
the words;
e.g. Laney et al.: controlled for processing of feedback by giving additional
questions (imagine the setting…);
e.g. Yamamoto et al.: same tool familiarisation process;
Natural experiment:
does not have a manipulated IV / conditions of the IV are not the result of
experimental intervention;
but does have a measured DV;
So there can be few controls;
e.g. in a study of the introduction of TV where the IV was before and after
TV was available;
© UCLES 2022 Page 8 of 17
Official mark scheme pages: 8 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-on-23-q07
Oct/Nov 2022 · Paper 23 · Question 7 · 6 marks
7 Pranit uses a questionnaire to investigate whether psychology
students know more about operant conditioning than the general
public. His questions are:
A Describe what you think a ‘reward’ is and does.
B Tell me what ‘punishment’ is and does.
C ‘Rewards are more effective than punishment’. Do you agree? yes
/ no.
D How sure are you that you could accurately explain ‘operant
conditioning’? 1 = certainly could, 5 = certainly could not.
7(a)(i) Identify one closed question from A to D. 1
1 mark for C or D (definitive)
Accept responses that have copied out the question instead of giving a letter
7(a)(ii) Identify one open question from A to D. 1
1 mark for A or B (definitive)
Accept responses that have copied out the question instead of giving a letter
© UCLES 2022 Page 9 of 17
7(b) Pranit adds two new questions to his questionnaire:
E Do rewards increase or decrease the frequency of a behaviour?
increase / decrease.
F Explain the effect of punishment on the frequency of a behaviour.
7(b)(i) Suggest one problem that Pranit could have when using one of the 2
new questions.
1 mark for identification of problem (may be generic)
1 mark for link
e.g. E ‘Do rewards increase or decrease the frequency of a behaviour?
increase / decrease’ (closed question)
(Because it is a closed question) the respondent can’t elaborate their
answer; (generic problem)
Participants could say ‘increase’ but might want to add ‘but not always’, but
couldn’t; (link)
It only has two options so they have a 50% chance of getting it correct;
(generic problem)
Even if the participant does not know whether it would increase or not; (link)
Could cause a ceiling effect; (link)
e.g. F ‘Explain the effect of punishment on the frequency of a behaviour’
(open question)
(Because it is an open question) their answer could need interpretation;
(generic problem)
If they say ‘punishment affects the frequency of a behaviour’, it’s only partly
right; (link)
Protection from harm; (generic problem)
Explaining punishment might be stressful for someone who was punished
often; (link)
7(b)(ii) Explain what the responses to Question E and Question F would tell 2
Pranit about the participants’ understanding of operant conditioning.
1 mark for explanation 2
‘Do rewards increase or decrease the frequency of a behaviour? increase /
decrease’
It would show whether the respondent understood that rewards act as
reinforcers;
It would show whether they know that rewards increase the frequency of a
behaviour
‘Explain the effect of punishment on the frequency of a behaviour’
To see whether the participant knew that punishment decreases behaviour
frequency;
© UCLES 2022 Page 10 of 17
Official mark scheme pages: 9, 10 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-on-23-q08
Oct/Nov 2022 · Paper 23 · Question 8 · 10 marks
8 Candy is investigating sleepiness in a student population. She is
recording the number of hours’ sleep the students have at the
beginning and at the end of the year. She has identified two
extraneous variables. One is a participant variable and one is a
situational variable:
• Highly motivated students often work harder at the beginning of
the year
• Late-night parties are more common at the end of the year.
8(a) Explain which one of these is a participant variable. 1
1 mark for explanation (no mark for identification)
No mark for repeating first bullet point
(Highly motivated students often work harder at the beginning of the year is
a participant variable)
because mood is internal / each individual is different / individual differences
/ their personality matters; (explanation)
8(b) Explain which one of these is a situational variable. 1
1 mark for explanation (no mark for identification)
No mark for repeating first bullet point
(Late-night parties are more common at the end of the year is a situational
variable)
because this is something external / in the environment / because any of the
students could go to parties; (explanation)
© UCLES 2022 Page 11 of 17
8(c)(i) Suggest how Candy could limit the effect of either the participant 2
variable or the situational variable.
No mark for identifying the problem
1 mark for suggestion (can be solved by mitigation or elimination)
1 mark for detail
Accept 2 brief ways for 2 marks (but must both be for the same variable)
Participant variable: Motivated personality:
Measure personality and see if it affects different people over the year;
(suggestion)
E.g. make sure there is a balance of highly motivated and unmotivated
students; (detail)
Remove students with extreme personalities from the sample; (suggestion)
E.g. by giving out a questionnaire to find out who is highly motivated (and
removing them); (detail)
Situational variable: Late-night parties:
Limit the effect by testing students’ sleep before the parties begin;
(suggestion)
E.g. testing them the week before the last week of the year / ban parties;
(detail)
Remove students who attend parties from the sample; (suggestion)
E.g. by giving out a questionnaire to find out who went to a party (and
removing them); (detail)
© UCLES 2022 Page 12 of 17
8(c)(ii) Attempting to limit the effects of one extraneous variable in a study 2
can create other problem effects.
Suggest one problem that your answer to (c)(i) could create in Candy’s
study.
Do not refer to demand characteristics in your answer.
1 mark for identifying issue
1 mark for detail (in order to gain two marks, the answer must apply to
Candy’s study)
People might lie in questionnaires; (issue)
So Candy thinks she is eliminating people who are unhappy / who went to
parties, but she isn’t; (detail)
Protection from harm; (issue)
Excluding some students from the sample / from the party might upset those
that are not chosen; (detail)
Stopping them going to parties could make them lonely; (detail)
Removing some people from the sample makes it biased; (issue)
E.g. the type of people who are lonely might also sleep more; (ORA) (detail)
E.g. people who go to parties might happen be the type of people who sleep
more anyway; (ORA) (detail)
Protection from harm; (issue)
Limiting students’ sleep would be dangerous; (detail)
8(d) Candy is also concerned about the effect of demand characteristics on
her results.
8(d)(i) Suggest one way that demand characteristics could affect Candy’s 2
results.
1 mark for identification of a possible source of demand characteristics in
this study (generic or linked)
1 mark for effect on results
The participants might become aware of the aim; (generic identification)
The participants might become aware of the aim from measuring their sleep
at the start of term; (linked identification)
This could lead them to worry about their sleep and sleep less; (effect on
results)
They might want to exaggerate the amount they sleep / deliberately sleep
more; (effect on results)
© UCLES 2022 Page 13 of 17
8(d)(ii) Candy does not want to deceive her participants by giving them a false 2
aim.
Suggest one way that Candy might reduce the effect of demand
characteristics on her results, other than by giving her participants a
false aim.
1 mark for identification of a way to reduce demand characteristics (generic)
1 mark for link
Hide the aim of the study; (generic)
By adding lots of other tests/measures other than the record of sleep; (link)
by adding filler questions to the questionnaire; (generic)
So it isn’t obvious that it is a study about sleep / e.g. by adding questions
about holidays; (link)
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 11, 12, 13, 14 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-on-23-q09
Oct/Nov 2022 · Paper 23 · Question 9 · 8 marks
9 Vernon is conducting an observational study about the helping
behaviour of students in a school.
9(a) Vernon wants to use an opportunity sample but his teacher tells him 2
that his sample will not be representative.
Explain what Vernon’s teacher means, using an example relating to
Vernon’s study.
1 mark for explanation of non-representative (generic)
1 mark for linked example of why
The sample would be biased / it won’t be typical of the population fully / hard
to generalise from; (generic)
E.g. only the more helpful students are likely to say yes when asked to
participate; (link)
9(b) Vernon decides to use a random sample instead. 2
Suggest how Vernon could obtain a random sample of 50 participants.
1 mark for how (generic)
1 mark for link
Use the registers / a list of everyone in the school to put each person’s
number in the hat; (link)
Get 50 numbers out of a hat / use a random number generator / number
tables (to be the sample);
© UCLES 2022 Page 14 of 17
9(c) Vernon is planning how to observe and record helpful behaviour in the
school.
9(c)(i) Suggest how two helping behaviours could be operationalised for 2
Vernon’s observation.
1 mark for operational definition of helping in a school 2
Lending a pencil;
Giving someone food;
Carrying books for a teacher;
9(c)(ii) Suggest how Vernon could be a non-participant observer to collect 2
data about helpful behaviour.
1 mark for how (generic)
1 mark for linked detail (school/classroom/helpfulness)
(Watching behaviour while) not joining in / not being in the social setting /
ignoring the participants; (generic)
Looking through a classroom window; (linked detail)
Sitting at the back of the classroom; (linked detail)
Watching the classroom through a one-way mirror / recording the children
through CCTV; (linked detail)
© UCLES 2022 Page 15 of 17
Official mark scheme pages: 14, 15 · source PDF URL
9990-2022-on-23-q10
Oct/Nov 2022 · Paper 23 · Question 10 · 14 marks
10(a) Meena wants to investigate one child in a class who is very resistant to 10
authority and is sometimes very disobedient. Meena wants to study
the child in detail to explore the child’s behaviour.
Describe how Meena could conduct a case study to investigate the
behaviour of this child.
Three majors for a case study are:
(a) techniques used to collect data asked e.g. interview, observations,
questionnaire, tests/tasks
(description of least two, can be generic e.g. open and closed
questions, participant observation, behavioural categories)
(b) content e.g. interview/questionnaire questions (open etc., about
obedience/disobedience e.g. to parents, teachers)
e.g. observe (in different situations, different techniques, qualitative data
/ behavioural categories)
e.g. test/task (detail of content/procedure, multiple sessions)
(for the detail, there must be information about one or more features
from at least two of the techniques that is specific to this study)
(c) use of data (e.g. open question interpretation, how obedience is
analysed, e.g. quantitative – scoring, means, triangulation)
The minors are:
where: location of participant when being studied (home, school?)
Who: – disobedient/naughty/resistant child
Other details for replication:
• ethical issues
Other appropriate responses should also be credited.
Level 3 (8–10 marks)
• Response is described in sufficient detail to be replicable (i.e. what
and how).
• Response may have a minor omission (i.e. who or where).
• Use of psychological terminology is accurate and comprehensive.
Level 2 (5–7 marks)
• Response is in some detail.
• Response has minor omission(s) (i.e. who and/or where).
• Use of psychological terminology is accurate.
Level 1 (1–4 marks)
• Response is basic in detail.
• Response has major omission(s).
• If response is impossible to conduct max. 2.
• Use of psychological terminology is mainly accurate.
Level 0 (0 marks)
No response worthy of credit.
© UCLES 2022 Page 16 of 17
10(b) Identify one practical weakness/limitation with the procedure you have 4
described in your answer to part (a) and suggest how your study might
be done differently to overcome the problem.
Do not refer to ethics or sampling in your answer.
Answer will depend on problem identified. If the problem was an obvious
omission in (a), fewer marks will have been awarded in (a), so they can be
awarded here.
Problems may, for example, be matters of:
Validity
• operationalisation
• difficulty with lying / social desirability
• difficulty with response biases
Reliability
• inter-rater consistency
• intra-rater consistency.
This list is not exhaustive and other appropriate responses should also be
credited.
Marks Comment
3–4 Appropriate problem identified.
Appropriate solution is clearly described.
2 Appropriate problem identified.
plus
EITHER
Explanation of why it is a problem
OR
Ineffectual but possible solution described.
1 Appropriate problem identified.
Little or no justification.
0 No response worthy of credit
© UCLES 2022 Page 17 of 17
Official mark scheme pages: 16, 17 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-mj-21-q01
May/June 2023 · Paper 21 · Question 1 · 2 marks
1 Explain what is meant by the term ‘ecological validity’. You may use an 2
example in your answer.
1 mark for explanation.
1 mark for detail (accept examples as detail).
The extent to which the findings of a study set in one situation would
generalise to other situations (explanation);
E.g. whether findings from laboratory studies are relevant to life outside the
laboratory (detail);
Andrade’s study in a laboratory may not represent attention in the real world
where there are distractions (example);
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 4 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-mj-21-q02
May/June 2023 · Paper 21 · Question 2 · 4 marks
2 In the study by Laney et al. (false memory), different types of items
were used in the various questionnaires. Two of the items included:
rating items on a scale of 1-8 (from ‘definitely did happen’ to
‘definitely did not happen’)
multiple choice items where participants circled a price they would
pay for different foods, e.g. $1.90, $2.50, or ‘would never buy’.
2(a) Explain whether these items are both open questions, both closed 2
questions, or one of each.
1 mark for ‘both closed’.
1 mark for justification (i.e. why they are closed).
They are both closed (questions);
They have fixed answer choices (justification);
They don’t allow the participants to elaborate their answer / give a
description / answer in depth (justification);
They cannot answer in words = 0.
They cannot explain why = 0 (NAQ).
2(b) Laney et al. used a ‘critical item’ in the profile and in a questionnaire 2
given to the experimental group.
Explain what is meant by a ‘critical item’, using the example from
Laney et al.
1 mark for explanation.
1 mark for link/example.
(A critical item is) the item/question that is related to the IV (explanation);
The manipulation that enables data collection for the DV (explanation);
The part of the procedure that directly related to the aim (explanation);
(In Laney et al.) it is the inclusion of the asparagus comment in the love
condition (link);
‘You loved to eat cooked asparagus’ (in the third position in the profile for
‘love’ condition participants) (link);
© UCLES 2023 Page 4 of 14
Official mark scheme pages: 4 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-mj-21-q03
May/June 2023 · Paper 21 · Question 3 · 4 marks
3 In the study by Canli et al. (brain scans and emotions), a repeated
measures design was used.
3(a) Explain what is meant by a ‘repeated measures design’. Include an 2
example from Canli et al. in your answer.
1 mark for explanation of repeated measures.
1 mark for link.
Every participant does all/both of the levels of the IV / conditions
(emotive/negative and non-emotive/neutral) = 1 mark (explanation);
Each participant saw stimuli at each level of (emotional) arousal (IV) (link);
3(b) Explain one strength of using a repeated measures design. 2
1 mark for explanation of strength.
2nd mark for detail (can include an example).
It overcomes problems with individual differences (explanation);
So if people differ in important ways they will all be their own baseline, so it
won’t matter (detail);
E.g. Yamamoto, if one chimp was more helpful than another (it would
confound an independent measures design) (detail);
E.g. if some participants in Canli et al. were just more emotional, it would
even out (detail);
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 5 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-mj-21-q04
May/June 2023 · Paper 21 · Question 4 · 4 marks
4 Explain two ways in which the procedure was standardised in the 4
study by Yamamoto et al. (chimpanzee helping).
1 mark for an aspect of standardisation }
1 mark for explanation/elaboration } 2
The tools were always presented on a tray (standardisation);
So that the items were no more likely to be easy to find in any trial / for any
chimpanzee (explanation);
All chimps had a familiarisation task (standardisation);
So that they were equally prepared for the tools needed for different tasks
(explanation);
Only difference between booths for ‘can see’ and ‘cannot see’ was whether
the panel was transparent or opaque (stand);
So the situation was the same each time, such as the hole they put the
objects through (elaboration);
© UCLES 2023 Page 5 of 14
Official mark scheme pages: 5 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-mj-21-q05
May/June 2023 · Paper 21 · Question 5 · 2 marks
5 Reliability refers to the consistency of tests, tasks or measures in 2
research.
Explain why reliability is important in experiments.
1 mark for explanation.
2nd mark for detail (can include an example).
If tests are inconsistent, differences between conditions might be due to
poor measurement, not the IV (explanation);
If the DV is not being measured reliably then the data cannot test a causal
effect (explanation);
E.g. if Bandura’s observers were not reliable, differences between
conditions might be due the scoring by observers, not the model conditions
(linked detail);
E.g. if Pepperberg was not consistent in her interpretation of Alex’s
utterances, the data could have been biased (linked detail);
Because low reliability also lowers validity (explanation);
I.e. the researcher cannot be sure that the IV and only the IV is affecting the
DV (detail);
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 6 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-mj-21-q06
May/June 2023 · Paper 21 · Question 6 · 6 marks
6 Describe the sampling techniques of ‘opportunity sampling’ and 6
‘volunteer sampling’, using any examples.
Definitions/detail: up to a maximum of 4 marks for each sampling technique.
Examples: maximum of 2 marks for each sampling technique.
Examples can include examples from any studies (core studies, other
studies, candidate’s own studies).
Max 4 if no examples.
Opportunity sampling:
Using participants who are available at the time / finding participants by
convenience;
Passers-by/students in the researcher’s class;
Baron-Cohen et al. found participants in adult community education class (in
Exeter) / (public) library (in Cambridge);
Saavedra and Silverman child (and mother) in treatment (at Florida
International University);
Piliavin et al. subway passengers;
Volunteer sampling:
Using a request asking people to join in;
By advert/email/post/online;
Baron-Cohen et al. took volunteers from Autistic Society magazine / support
group;
Schachter and Singer used volunteers from the psychology course /
University of Minnesota;
Laney et al. used volunteers from a participant pool (at University of
Washington);
© UCLES 2023 Page 6 of 14
Official mark scheme pages: 6 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-mj-21-q07
May/June 2023 · Paper 21 · Question 7 · 10 marks
7 Steve is planning an experiment, using the technique of observation,
to compare the level of frustration shown by shoppers in different
types of shops. He has set up cameras to help measure the behaviour
of shoppers in shops selling basic goods (things that are essential)
and shops selling luxury goods (things that are not essential).
7(a) Steve is concerned that situational variables could be a problem in his
study.
7(a)(i) Suggest two situational variables that could affect Steve’s study. 2
1 mark for a relevant situational variable 2 (No marks for participant
variables).
How busy the shop is / how many customers there are;
How many staff there are;
The music playing;
If the shoppers are already frustrated = 0 (participant variable);
7(a)(ii) Explain how each of the situational variables that you suggested in 4
(a)(i) could be a problem in Steve’s study.
1 mark for explanation of situational variable + 1 mark for detail 2.
How busy the shop is / how many customers there are:
Being crowded may make the shoppers frustrated (explanation);
This is important because if there is a difference it is due to crowds rather
than the type of shop (detail);
How many staff there are:
If there are more staff they may get helped/served slower, making them
frustrated;
This is important because if there is a difference it is due to the number of
staff not the type of shop (detail);
The music playing:
If the music playing in one type of shop is better/louder it may make them
more or less frustrated;
This is important because if there is a difference it is due to the music rather
than the type of shop (detail);
7(b) Steve is also concerned about the ethics of his study.
7(b)(i) Suggest why the ethical guideline of right to withdraw would be 2
difficult for Steve to follow in his study.
1 mark for brief or unlinked answer.
1 mark for clear and linked answer (will include idea of ‘being able to leave’
(guideline) and ‘leaving the shop’ (Steve).
Right to withdraw is the opportunity for participants to leave the study if they
want to (unlinked) = 1;
Steve’s participants cannot leave the shop because they do not know they
are in a study (linked) = 2.
© UCLES 2023 Page 7 of 14
7(b)(ii) Suggest why the ethical guideline of privacy would be difficult for 2
Steve to follow in his study.
1 mark for brief or unlinked answer.
2 marks for clear and linked answer: will include ‘intrusion’ (guideline) and
‘being seen doing shopping/stealing’ (Steve).
Privacy is participants who do not want to be seen or their behaviour
observed (unlinked) = 1;
Participants are unaware of the observation so may behave in ways they
would not want to be seen e.g. stealing (linked) = 2;
Participants have the right to private space/thoughts and may not want to
be seen buying expensive goods (linked) = 2;
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 7, 8 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-mj-21-q08
May/June 2023 · Paper 21 · Question 8 · 7 marks
8 Leila is conducting a correlational study. She predicts that there will
be a correlation between:
‘success at learning a language’
‘enjoyment of word puzzles’, e.g. crosswords.
8(a) Suggest an objective measure of ‘success at learning a language’ that 2
Leila could use. Justify your answer. Do not use a self-report rating
scale.
1 mark for measure of language learning.
1 mark for justification of objectivity.
Vocabulary size (in new language) (measure);
How many errors they make in verb conjugation (measure);
This will be a numerical result so does not need interpretation (justification).
How fluent they are assessed by their ability to complete a multiple choice
test (measure);
Each item on the test will only have one correct answer (justification);
8(b) Leila is measuring ‘enjoyment of word puzzles’ by asking participants 1
to rate how much they enjoy word puzzles on a scale of 0 (not at all) to
5 (very much).
Explain how Leila would calculate the median for ‘enjoyment of word
puzzles’.
1 mark for linked explanation.
Put all the enjoyment scores into (numerical) order (by value) and find the
middle one = 1;
Put all the scores into (numerical) order (by value) and find the middle one =
0 marks (could be learning scores);
© UCLES 2023 Page 8 of 14
8(c) Leila conducts her study. Her results show a positive correlation. 4
Sketch a graph, using the axes below, to show the pattern of Leila’s
results.
You must label the axes.
Award 1 mark for each of:
scatter graph (points or ‘line of best fit’)
positive slope (essential for 4 marks)
axis label: ‘language learning (score)’ OWTTE
axis label: ‘enjoyment of word puzzles’ OWTTE
axis scale for ‘word puzzle’ axis: 0-5
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 8, 9 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-mj-21-q09
May/June 2023 · Paper 21 · Question 9 · 7 marks
9 Inma is conducting an experiment about learning. She predicts that
animals will learn to find food in a maze faster in the light than in the
dark. If the animal does not find the food after 10 minutes, they are
given the food by the experimenter.
9(a) Inma is using a directional (one-tailed) hypothesis. 2
Explain why Inma is using a directional hypothesis in her experiment.
1 mark for a generic explanation.
2 marks for a linked explanation.
Because she knows which way the results will go = 1 (generic);
Because she believes that the animals will be faster (to learn the maze) in
the light than the dark = +1 (linked);
© UCLES 2023 Page 9 of 14
9(b) Write a null hypothesis for Inma’s experiment. 1
1 mark for a null hypothesis.
There will be no difference between speed in the maze in the light and in the
dark = 1.
Any difference between maze learning success in the light and in the dark is
due to chance = 1.
There will be no difference between maze learning success/speed and light
and dark = 0.
Any difference between maze learning success and light or dark is due to
chance = 0.
9(c) Inma will use an independent measures design for her experiment. 2
Explain one advantage of using an independent measures design
compared to a repeated measures design.
1 mark for generic advantage.
2 marks for advantage compared explicitly to repeated measures.
The animals cannot suffer practice/fatigue/order effects = 1 (generic).
The animals cannot suffer practice/fatigue/order effects (as don’t do both
levels of IV unlike in repeated measures) = 2.
They will only experience one level of the IV = 1 (generic).
They cannot suffer a practice/fatigue/order effect as they will only do the
maze in the light or dark unlike repeated.measures = 2.
The animals will not get better between conditions/levels of the IV = 1
(generic).
The animals will not get better between doing the maze in the light and then
in the dark unlike repeated measures = 2.
The animals will not be affected (so much) by demand characteristics =1.
Animals will not be affected (so much) by demand characteristics as they
only experience one level of the IV = 1 (not explicit).
Animals will not be affected (so much) by demand characteristics as they
will only do the maze in the light or dark unlike repeated measures = 2.
© UCLES 2023 Page 10 of 14
9(d) Explain how Inma followed one ethical guideline in relation to animals. 2
1 mark for identifying relevant guideline.
1 mark for explanation of how Inma is following it.
Reward;
Animals are being given a food reward for reaching the middle of the maze /
are not punished if they don’t (explanation).
Housing (guideline);
Animals are being fed (within at least 10 minutes) (explanation).
Pain and distress (guideline);
Animals are not suffering, only finding their way through a maze (and getting
fed) (explanation).
Deprivation (and aversive stimuli) (guideline);
Animals are not deprived as they get food whether they reach the middle of
the maze or not (explanation).
© UCLES 2023 Page 11 of 14
Official mark scheme pages: 9, 10, 11 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-mj-21-q10
May/June 2023 · Paper 21 · Question 10 · 14 marks
10 Dr Clare is planning an observational study of student behaviour in a
library at a university. She will be the only observer. She is interested
in student behaviours such as:
• how they study
• how they find books
• what they do in the library other than studying
• how long they spend in the library.
10(a) Describe how Dr Clare could conduct an observational study to 10
investigate the behaviour of students in a library at a university.
Three majors for an observational study are:
(a) [what] behaviours - that will be recorded, e.g. two named (detail e.g.
definition / operationalisation of behavioural categories);
(b) [how] identification of first observational technique (detail: how
achieved):
structured/unstructured
participant/non-participant (not interacting with students; sitting at
back of library/upstairs)
naturalistic/controlled (do not interfere, ask Qs, help finding books
etc)
covert/overt (hidden/unaware; librarian/stooge student).
(c) [how] further/additional observational techniques (detail: how
achieved, in at least one further case):
participant/non-participant (participant – librarian/stooge student)
naturalistic/controlled (stooge ask for help to find books, stooge
tries to engage them in in non-studying)
covert/overt.
The minors are:
where – location of participants when data is collected (university library)
who – participants (students)
when – data is collected.
Other details for replication:
sampling technique
sample size
description of how data will analysed, e.g. use of measures of central
tendency and spread, bar charts
ethical issues.
© UCLES 2023 Page 12 of 14
10(a) Other appropriate responses should also be credited.
Mark according to the levels of response criteria below:
Level 3 (8–10 marks)
Response is described in sufficient detail to be replicable.
Response may have a minor omission.
Use of psychological terminology is accurate and comprehensive.
Level 2 (5–7 marks)
Response is in some detail.
Response has minor omission(s).
Use of psychological terminology is accurate.
Level 1 (1–4 marks)
Response is basic in detail.
Response has major omission(s).
If response is impossible to conduct max. 2.
Use of psychological terminology is mainly accurate.
Level 0 (0 marks)
No response worthy of credit.
© UCLES 2023 Page 13 of 14
10(b) Identify one practical weakness/limitation with the procedure you have 4
described in your answer to part (a) and suggest how your study might
be done differently to overcome the problem.
Do not refer to ethics or sampling in your answer.
Answer will depend on problem identified.
Problems may, for example, be matters of:
Validity
operationalisation
situational/participant variables factors.
Reliability
inter-rater consistency
intra-rater consistency.
This list is not exhaustive and other appropriate responses should also be
credited.
Marks Comment
3–4 Appropriate problem identified.
Appropriate solution is clearly described.
2 Appropriate problem identified.
plus
EITHER
Explanation of why it is a problem,
OR
Ineffectual but possible solution described.
1 Appropriate problem identified.
Little or no justification.
0 No response worthy of credit.
© UCLES 2023 Page 14 of 14
Official mark scheme pages: 12, 13, 14 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-mj-22-q01
May/June 2023 · Paper 22 · Question 1 · 2 marks
1 From the study by Yamamoto et al. (chimpanzee helping): 2
Suggest why it was necessary for the chimpanzees to examine and
manipulate the tools before the experiment.
1 mark for a suggestion.
1 mark for detail / second suggestion (must be clearly a different idea).
So that they knew what properties the objects had (suggestion);
Otherwise they wouldn’t have been able to decide which tool was useful for
which problem (detail);
So that the tools were familiar (suggestion);
To ensure differences in chimpanzees’ responses were not because they
know more about sticks (detail);
So they were not afraid of the tools (suggestion);
So the researchers could say changes in behaviour were due to the IV (ie
could or could not see), not fear (detail);
So they were not too interested in the tools to give them away (suggestion);
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 4 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-mj-22-q02
May/June 2023 · Paper 22 · Question 2 · 2 marks
2 Chloë is conducting a study to investigate classical conditioning and
operant conditioning. Her aim is to test which type of conditioning
produces the fastest learning.
2(a) Write a non-directional (two-tailed) hypothesis for Chloë’s study. 1
You do not need to operationalise the variables in your hypothesis.
1 mark for a non-directional hypothesis with some reference to study – at
least one variable (must not be generic).
there will be a difference in learning speed between tasks learned by
operant and by classical conditioning;
classically and operantly learned tasks will be acquired at different
speeds;
Directional / null hypothesis = 0
Correlational hypotheses = 0 [NAQ]
© UCLES 2023 Page 4 of 15
2(b) Chloë’s results in the two conditions were the same. 1
Explain why Chloë must reject her non-directional hypothesis,
referring to her variables in your answer.
1 mark for reason with some reference to study (must not be generic).
Operant conditioning was no faster than classical ORA;
There was no difference in speed for learning through operant or classical
conditioning;
Neither operant nor classical conditioning produce faster learning;
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 4, 5 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-mj-22-q03
May/June 2023 · Paper 22 · Question 3 · 5 marks
3 The study by Schachter and Singer investigated two factors in
emotion.
3(a) The participants in this study were deceived.
3(a)(i) Outline one way that the participants were deceived in this study. 2
1 mark for outline (can be generic) + 1 for detail (must be linked).
The participants thought the stooge was another participant (outline);
But he was there (as a confederate of the experimenter) to create conditions
of euphoria/anger (detail);
They were told the injection was Suproxin (outline);
So they thought it was a vitamin (detail);
But it was (saline or) adrenaline/epinephrine (detail);
They were told the wrong effects of / were misinformed about adrenaline
(outline);
So expected numbness/itching / (slight) headache instead of (real) shaking /
heart pounding / face feeling warm/flushed (detail);
© UCLES 2023 Page 5 of 15
3(a)(ii) Explain why the deception that you outlined in (a)(i) was necessary. 2
1 mark for explanation + 1 for detail (linked), i.e. to earn full marks, response
must be linked.
To avoid demand characteristics (explanation);
If the participants had known the role of the stooge, he wouldn’t have
affected their mood (explanation/detail);
So there wouldn’t have been euphoria and anger conditions / levels of the IV
/ manipulation of the cognitive factor (detail);
If all participants were given saline/adrenaline and told what it was, they
would have expected the real effects (explanation);
So there would have been no manipulation of the physiological factor
(detail);
If they had known about the injection Schachter and Singer wouldn’t have
manipulated informed/ignorant (explanation);
So the participants wouldn’t have a cognitive label for their arousal (detail);
3(b) Schachter and Singer reported that in one condition, the observer 1
could not hear the spoken reactions for one participant.
State one practical reason why this was a problem.
1 mark for practical reason for problem.
They had less data in that condition / incomplete data in that condition /
would not have known if the participant agreed with the stooge;
The results would be less valid/generalisable;
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 5, 6 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-mj-22-q04
May/June 2023 · Paper 22 · Question 4 · 5 marks
4 The data from Experiment 1 in the study by Laney et al. (false memory)
is given in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1
Mean rating for the critical item ‘loved
asparagus the first time you tried it’
Condition Week 1 Week 2
Control 1.5 2.5
Love 1.7 4.2
© UCLES 2023 Page 6 of 15
4(a) Draw a bar chart of the ‘Week 2’ data only. You must label the axes. 4
1 mark; x-axis label (condition / level of the IV / item on FHI)
1 mark: x-axis categories (control / love) allocated to appropriate bars on
chart
1 mark: y-axis label (mean rating for the critical item)
1 mark: y-axis scale (min 2.5–4.2, probably 0–5)
1 mark: correctly plotted (2.5 and 4.2)
Must be a bar chart with gap between the bars for full 4 marks.
4(b) State one conclusion about this study using the data in Table 4.1. 1
1 mark for conclusion.
The critical item in the ‘love’ group changed the belief of participants;
The critical item, that the participant ‘loved asparagus the first time you tried
it’, indicated that the manipulation had changed the belief of participants in
the ‘love’ group (who did not already like asparagus as a child anyway);
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 6, 7 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-mj-22-q05
May/June 2023 · Paper 22 · Question 5 · 2 marks
5 Explain the importance of inter-observer reliability in the study by 2
Bandura et al. (aggression).
1 mark for outlining inter-observer reliability (implicitly or explicitly).
1 mark for explanation.
The consistency between two observers (outline);
So that the teacher and the researcher rated the same / so that aggression
was rated the same (explanation);
Whether two observers will produce the same results when observing the
same participants (explanation);
The observers recording the children’s behaviour had good agreement so
differences in aggression must have been due to the effects of the model
not the observers = 2 (implicit outline + linked explanation).
There was a high inter-rater reliability (of 0.8) so when they found the
aggressive model children were more aggressive towards the Bobo doll
(than the non-aggressive model children) [= 1, linked explanation] this
wasn’t because of differences in the observers [= 1, implicit outline].
© UCLES 2023 Page 7 of 15
Official mark scheme pages: 7 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-mj-22-q06
May/June 2023 · Paper 22 · Question 6 · 6 marks
6 Describe the use of controls in laboratory experiments and field 6
experiments, using any examples.
Definitions/detail – general: credit each point that applies to both, but then
apply mark limits below.
Definitions/detail – specific to methods: up to a maximum of 4 marks for
controls in each experimental method.
Examples: maximum of 2 marks for controls in each experimental method.
Examples can include ones from any studies (core studies, other studies,
candidate’s own studies).
Max 4 marks if no examples.
Max 4 marks if all general (with no explicit – or even implicit – reference to
lab/field).
Max 4 marks if all about one type of experiment.
Controls (general):
Are ways to limit (the effect of) / eliminated variables that are a problem in
experiments;
(They improve validity because) they ensure each condition / level of the IV
differs only in terms of the IV;
Controls in lab experiments:
Are easier to implement than in field experiments; (credit only once, i.e. not
reverse argument as well);
As the environment is artificial / set up by the researchers / can be altered
(credit only once);
E.g. Bandura exposed every child to the same staged start of the model
potato printing;
E.g. Andrade gave both the experimental and the control groups pieces of
paper and pencils;
Controls in field experiments:
Are harder to implement than in lab experiments (credit only once, i.e. not
reverse argument as well);
As the environment already exists / is not set up by the researchers / cannot
be altered very much (credit only once);
E.g. Piliavin et al. could not control how many passengers there were in a
carriage;
E.g. Schachter and Singer could control the mood of the participants but
Piliavin et al. could not;
© UCLES 2023 Page 8 of 15
Official mark scheme pages: 8 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-mj-22-q07
May/June 2023 · Paper 22 · Question 7 · 11 marks
7 Deryn is planning an experimental study to compare how, and how
often, men and women look at themselves in a shop window. She
plans to collect quantitative data using observations and will calculate
a median.
7(a)(i) Identify the independent variable in Deryn’s study. 1
1 mark for IV.
gender;
males and females;
7(a)(ii) Identify one dependent variable in Deryn’s study. 1
1 mark for DV.
How often men and women look at themselves (in a shop window);
Behaviours in front of the windows / What males and females do in front of
shop windows;
Time spent in front of the windows / Time spent looking at themselves;
7(a)(iii) Identify the experimental design used in Deryn’s study. 1
1 mark for experimental design.
Independent measures/groups;
Independent (design) = 0 marks.
7(b)(i) Suggest how Deryn could use a structured observation in her study. 3
3 marks for how to use a structured observation.
For max 3 mark, the response must link to looking in a shop window.
Structured observations list specific behaviours to record / have behavioural
categories before the study (generic);
The observer checklists the frequency of (only) those behaviours (generic);
E.g. Deryn would need follow each participant (shopper) through the
shopping centre and tally (on the checklist) each time they looked in a shop
window;
such as whether they paused to look at their reflection;
And record whether they were male or female;
Straightening clothes;
Tidying hair;
Putting lipstick on;
Smiling at their reflection;
© UCLES 2023 Page 9 of 15
7(b)(ii) Suggest one disadvantage of using a structured observation 2
compared to an unstructured observation in Deryn’s study.
1 mark for disadvantage.
1 mark for link.
It may be hard to count individual behaviours / to separate the behavioural
stream into individual actions to record;
E.g. was it one long look or two short glances (link);
There is a list so new behaviours / ones not on the list cannot be recorded;
E.g. if people use the window to adjust their clothing and that wasn’t on the
list / it couldn’t be added (link);
7(c) A ‘measure of central tendency’ is a method of data analysis.
7(c)(i) Explain why the median is a measure of central tendency. 1
1 mark for explanation.
The median is a measure of central tendency because it finds a typical
score in a data set;
It’s a measure of central tendency because it finds the middle of the scores;
Central tendency because it finds the centre of the data = 0 [REP].
7(c)(ii) Suggest one strength of using one method of data analysis, other than 2
the median, with Deryn’s results.
1 mark for identifying an appropriate method of data analysis.
1 mark for a linked strength, include additional uses to that provided by the
median as a strength i.e. can be descriptive of a use.
The mean;
This will take into account the frequency of looking in shop windows for each
participant (the values);
The range;
This will provide (different) information about the spread of frequencies for
looking in windows (for men and women);
The mode;
Shows us the most common behaviour when looking in windows (which the
median does not do);
Strength that it can be used on categorical/discrete/nominal data such as
tidy hair and adjust clothing for men and women;
Because it is easy to calculate = 0 [all are easy].
© UCLES 2023 Page 10 of 15
Official mark scheme pages: 9, 10 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-mj-22-q08
May/June 2023 · Paper 22 · Question 8 · 8 marks
8 Phyllis is planning a correlational study to investigate the relationship
between vocabulary size and level of education.
8(a)(i) Suggest two ways that Phyllis could measure ‘vocabulary size’. 4
1 mark for suggestion + 1 mark for detail 2.
The suggestion must produce quantitative data on a scale (to correlate).
Set them a vocabulary test of words to remember (suggestion);
Count how many they get right (detail);
Give them a passage (which is not familiar) to translate (suggestion);
and see how many of the unusual words they know (detail);
Listen to them speak (suggestion);
Estimate the range of words they are using on a scale of 1–10 (detail);
8(a)(ii) For one of the ways you have suggested in (a)(i): 1
Suggest one strength of measuring vocabulary size in this way.
1 mark for suggestion of strength (can be an advantage compared to one of
the other suggestions).
A test is more objective than an estimate of range of words used;
e.g can’t pretend to know a word they don’t know;
Good reliability because no doubt if a word was understood or not;
Ethically good as participants can self-report word knowledge which is not
invasive / do not have to test them;
A test is less subjective than whether words they use are unusual;
Standardised because they all get the same list;
8(b) Suggest one way that Phyllis could measure ‘level of education’. 1
1 mark for suggestion.
The suggestion must produce quantitative data on a continuous scale of
more than two points (to correlate).
Number of years in education / Grade in school;
whether they have no qualifications / A Levels / a degree;
© UCLES 2023 Page 11 of 15
8(c) Phyllis expects to find a positive correlation.
8(c)(i) Outline what Phyllis would conclude if she found the results in Fig. 8.1. 1
1 mark for outline (naming or describing).
(That there was a) negative (inverse) correlation / relationship / link;
That as vocabulary size increases, level of education falls; ORA
8(c)(ii) Outline what Phyllis would conclude if she found the results in Fig. 8.2. 1
1 mark for outline (naming or describing).
(That there was) no correlation / relationship / link;
That there is no link between vocabulary and level of education;
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 11, 12 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-mj-22-q09
May/June 2023 · Paper 22 · Question 9 · 5 marks
9 James is planning a study and has chosen to use opportunity
sampling to find participants. A friend says he should use random
sampling instead. Another friend says sample size is just as important
as sampling technique.
9(a) Explain one strength of using opportunity sampling. 2
1 mark for strength.
1 mark for detail (can be linked but does not have to be).
It is easy / takes little time (strength);
Because he can select participants who are readily available / nearby
(detail);
So the sample can be bigger (detail);
© UCLES 2023 Page 12 of 15
9(b) Explain one advantage of using random sampling instead of 2
opportunity sampling.
1 mark for explanation of advantage.
1 mark for detail (can be linked but does not have to be).
It will be more representative / the findings will be more generalisable
(explanation);
Because the participants are more likely to have a range of characteristics /
are more likely to contain (more of) the features that exist in the population
(detail);
9(c) Explain why a large sample may be better than a smaller sample. 1
1 mark for explanation (can be linked but does not have to be).
A larger sample is likely to have a greater variety of people / more
(individual) differences (between people);
Be more representative / generalisable;
A small sample is likely to have a smaller variety of people;
Be less representative / generalisable;
Official mark scheme pages: 12, 13 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-mj-22-q10
May/June 2023 · Paper 22 · Question 10 · 14 marks
10 Perrin is going to interview participants about their dreams. He wants
to collect information about the duration and content of dreams in
children and adults.
10(a) Describe how Perrin could conduct a study using an interview to 10
investigate the duration and content of dreams in children and adults.
Three majors for an interview are:
(a) content of questions asked (topics, examples)
(b) interview structure detail (i.e. named structured/semi/unstructured
plus how – i.e. definition, even if not linked)
(c) style of questions asked (open/closed).
The minors are:
where – location of participants when being interviewed
who – participants (adults and children who recall their dreams).
Other details for replication:
lie questions
filler questions
sampling technique
sample size
description of how data will be analysed, e.g. use of averages / bar
charts
ethical issues.
Other appropriate responses should also be credited.
Mark according to the levels of response criteria below:
© UCLES 2023 Page 13 of 15
10(a)
Level 3 (8–10 marks)
Response is described in sufficient detail to be replicable.
Response may have a minor omission.
Use of psychological terminology is accurate and comprehensive.
Level 2 (5–7 marks)
Response is in some detail.
Response has minor omission(s).
Use of psychological terminology is accurate.
Level 1 (1–4 marks)
Response is basic in detail.
Response has major omission(s).
If response is impossible to conduct max. 2.
Use of psychological terminology is mainly accurate.
Level 0 (0 marks)
No response worthy of credit.
© UCLES 2023 Page 14 of 15
10(b) Identify one practical weakness/limitation with the procedure you have 4
described in your answer to part (a) and suggest how your study might
be done differently to overcome the problem.
Do not refer to ethics or sampling in your answer.
Answer will depend on problem identified.
Problems may, for example, be matters of:
Validity
operationalisation
situational/participant variables factors.
Reliability
inter-rater consistency
intra-rater consistency.
This list is not exhaustive and other appropriate responses should also be
credited.
Marks Comment
3–4 Appropriate problem identified.
Appropriate solution is clearly described.
2 Appropriate problem identified
plus
EITHER
Explanation of why it is a problem,
OR
Ineffectual but possible solution described.
1 Appropriate problem identified.
Little or no justification.
0 No response worthy of credit.
© UCLES 2023 Page 15 of 15
Official mark scheme pages: 13, 14, 15 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-mj-23-q01
May/June 2023 · Paper 23 · Question 1 · 3 marks
1(a) Describe what is meant by the term ‘random sampling’. 2
1 mark for description.
1 mark for detail.
Random sampling ensures each individual in the population has an equal
chance of becoming a participant (description);
Every member of the population has a number, pull numbers from hat (until
enough participants in sample) (description/detail);
Give numbers to individuals and select using a computerised/tabulated
random number source (description/detail);
Choosing people without bias = 0
By collecting random people (from the street) = 0
By choosing people at random = 0
1(b) Explain one weakness of random sampling. 1
1 mark for weakness.
May not be representative if access to parts of the population is limited;
not all the people who are randomly selected may be willing to participate
(potentially biasing the data);
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 4 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-mj-23-q02
May/June 2023 · Paper 23 · Question 2 · 4 marks
2 The study by Yamamoto et al. (chimpanzee helping) followed ethical 4
guidelines relating to the use of animals.
Describe how two ethical guidelines relating to the use of animals in
research were followed in this study.
1 mark for name/description of animal guideline.
1 mark for link to Yamamoto et al. x2.
Chimpanzees were housed appropriately (name/description of guideline);
They are social animals and were kept together (link);
They were appropriately fed, using monkey food and extra fruit and
vegetables (link);
The chimpanzees did not suffer pain/distress (name/description of
guideline);
They only had to pick up tools and pass them through a hole (which is not
painful or distressing); (link);
The chimpanzees were rewarded not punished (name/description of
guideline);
They were given juice rewards when they responded (link);
Numbers were kept small/low/minimised (name/description of guideline);
Only 5 chimps were used / 5 pairs were used (link);
© UCLES 2023 Page 4 of 14
Official mark scheme pages: 4 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-mj-23-q03
May/June 2023 · Paper 23 · Question 3 · 3 marks
3 In the study by Laney et al. (false memory), standard deviations were
calculated.
3(a) State what is meant by a ‘measure of spread’. 1
1 mark for stating meaning.
A way to indicate/express/show the dispersion / differences in / variety of
values in a data set;
how much scores vary = 1;
The range (of scores) = 0 [NAQ]
How spread out the scores are = 0 [REP]
The deviation in the scores = 0 [REP]
3(b) State one advantage of using the standard deviation compared to one 2
other measure of spread.
1 mark for identification of alternative measure of spread.
1 mark for advantage of standard deviation [award this mark if advantage –
i.e. strength – is correct but no alternative is given].
Range (identification); [Do not award for incidental use of word]
Average spread / difference from the mean (rather than just smallest and
largest) (advantage); [Do not accept ‘deviation’]
It considers how spread out all the points are (rather than just the extreme
two) (advantage);
© UCLES 2023 Page 5 of 14
Official mark scheme pages: 5 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-mj-23-q04
May/June 2023 · Paper 23 · Question 4 · 3 marks
4 In the study by Pepperberg (parrot learning), Alex the parrot was tested
using the categories of:
shape
material
colour.
4(a) Suggest why Pepperberg chose to test the parrot using the categories 2
of ‘shape’ and ‘material’.
1 mark for suggestion [novel suggestion for choice, not reiterating aim].
2nd mark for detail or a second suggestion (e.g. one suggestion for shape
and one for material can be 2 marks, or two for both).
Alex was able to say both words (just about) (suggestion);
So it would be possible to test his comprehension (in a valid way) (detail);
Both were simple/visual features so that it could be possible that Alex could
learn them;
If more complex concepts / concepts in a medium less familiar to parrots, it
would have been too hard (so lacked validity / caused a floor effect);
4(b) Suggest one other category that Pepperberg could have used to test the 1
parrot’s understanding of categories.
1 mark for suggestion.
Ascending and descending / different tones;
Different bird songs;
Different sounds/smells;
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 6 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-mj-23-q05
May/June 2023 · Paper 23 · Question 5 · 3 marks
5 The study by Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreams) investigated two 3
kinds of sleep: REM sleep and non-REM sleep.
State three differences between REM sleep and non-REM sleep.
1 mark per explicit difference stated.
Less dream recall from non-REM (than REM) ORA;
Brain waves different / lighter sleep in REM (than in non-REM) ORA;
Four stages of non-REM but all REM is the same;
When dreams are recalled from non-REM they are like thoughts but vivid
dream recall from REM stage;
More non-REM at start of night/more REM at end of night ORA;
Rapid eye movements in REM sleep (related to dreams) (but none in nREM);
© UCLES 2023 Page 6 of 14
Official mark scheme pages: 6 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-mj-23-q06
May/June 2023 · Paper 23 · Question 6 · 6 marks
6 Describe the ethical guidelines of ‘informed consent’ and ‘protection 6
from harm’, using any examples.
Definitions/detail: up to a maximum of 4 marks for each guideline.
Examples: maximum of 2 marks for each guideline.
Examples can include ones from any studies (core studies, other studies,
candidate’s own studies).
Max 4 if no examples.
Informed consent:
Consent is giving participants enough information to make a choice about
participating;
by briefing participants;
then getting them to (sign to) say they understand and want to do the study /
to say yes or no;
Presumptive consent is where you ask a similar group of people to the real
participants and they agree;
E.g., in Canli’s study the participants will have consented to the risks of a PET
scan;
E.g. in Milgram’s study they did not give informed consent as they thought it
was a study about learning/punishment;
Protection from harm:
Protection means ensuring that participants are not harmed physically or
psychologically;
They should leave the study in at least as good a condition as they entered it;
Psychological harm could be from the nature of the study / embarrassment at
their performance;
E.g. Milgram’s participants were stressed by having to give the learner
shocks;
E.g. Milgram’s participants were distressed by participation because they felt
they could kill somebody;
E.g. Piliavin’s participants could have been frightened by a stooge falling;
E.g. Piliavin’s participants could have felt regret from failing to help the stooge
(and weren’t debriefed);
Physical harm could arise from procedures/harm participants inflict on
themselves due to participation;
E.g. in a study testing motivation to keep your hand in ice cold water could
damage your skin;
E.g. one of Milgram’s participants had a seizure;
E.g. Milgram’s participants did things to harm themselves like biting lips; this
can be partly overcome by debriefing;
E.g. Milgram reassured his participants that the stooge was unharmed; or by
following up participants;
© UCLES 2023 Page 7 of 14
Official mark scheme pages: 7 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-mj-23-q07
May/June 2023 · Paper 23 · Question 7 · 6 marks
7 Nigel has conducted a laboratory experiment to compare children’s
choice of sweets (candy) in different packets.
The children were shown sweets in:
brightly coloured packets with simple patterns
black and white packets with complex patterns.
His results showed that more children chose the sweets from the
‘brightly coloured packets with simple patterns’ condition.
7(a)(i) Suggest one other condition that Nigel could have included in his study. 1
1 mark for additional condition (can be a control or additional experimental
condition).
Black and white simple patterned packets (instead of complex ones);
Complex patterned bright colours (instead of simple ones);
Boxes instead of packets;
(A control condition of) packets with no colours or patterns;
Accept other suggestions that are linked to packets/colours/patterns.
7(a)(ii) Explain why the condition you suggested in (a)(i) would have been 2
useful.
1 mark for explanation.
1 mark for detail.
Black and white simple patterns:
To control for (the variable of) colour (explanation);
To see if it is because they like bright colours or dislike simple patterns
(detail);
Brightly coloured complex patterns:
To control for (the variable of) pattern (explanation);
To see if it is because they like simple patterns or dislike black and white
(plain) ‘colours’ (detail);
7(b) Nigel used a repeated measures design. 2
Explain what is meant by a ‘repeated measures design’, using an
example from this study.
1 mark for explanation of repeated measures.
1 mark for link.
In a repeated measures design all participants perform in all levels of the IV
(explanation);
So it means that each of Nigel’s participants saw both types of sweet packet
(link);
© UCLES 2023 Page 8 of 14
7(c) Name one experimental design Nigel could have used, other than a 1
repeated measures design.
1 mark for independent measures / matched pairs.
Independent (design) / matched (design) = 0.
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 8, 9 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-mj-23-q08
May/June 2023 · Paper 23 · Question 8 · 9 marks
8 Mila is planning a case study to investigate how a 21-year-old person
feels about being the only young person in a community of 20 older
people on a small island.
8(a) Suggest two techniques Mila could use to collect data from her 4
participant in this study.
1 mark for suggestion + 1 mark for linked detail x2.
Observation (suggestion);
E.g. use structured observation of interactions with others using behavioural
categories e.g. talking/following (linked detail);
Such as whether she speaks directly to adults / to old people/no one (linked
detail);
E.g. use an overt observation of her telephone/internet use to find out how
she copes with being alone (linked detail);
E.g. to see how she attempts to communicate with other young people
(linked detail);
Interview (suggestion);
E.g. ask the girl questions about how she feels that are planned at first, then
questions based on her answers (linked detail);
Such as asking who she talks to instead if she says she doesn’t talk to the
old people (linked detail);
A questionnaire;
asking about feelings towards other people in the community; = 2 [just]
© UCLES 2023 Page 9 of 14
8(b)(ii) Explain one disadvantage of this technique. 2
1 mark for suggested disadvantage.
1 mark for detail (likely to be linked, but not required).
Observation:
Can only access information about the relationship which can be seen
(disadvantage);
So the underlying reasons for their interactions / lack of interactions with the
old people cannot be investigated (detail);
Interview:
The participant may give socially desirable answers about their interactions
with the old people (disadvantage);
Such as lying because they are embarrassed about how little they talk to the
old people (detail);
8(c) Mila wants to generalise her findings to all adults who live away from 1
other people of their own age.
Explain why Mila should not make this generalisation from the findings
of her case study.
1 mark for reason (linked or generic).
One person is unrepresentative / would be unique / everyone is different;
The participant lives in a small community / on a small island (so is
unusual);
one gender;
one age;
© UCLES 2023 Page 10 of 14
Official mark scheme pages: 9, 10 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-mj-23-q09
May/June 2023 · Paper 23 · Question 9 · 9 marks
9 Alan and Jocelyn are writing a questionnaire to ask about the level of
euphoria created by listening to music at a concert, compared with
listening to music at home.
9(a)(i) Suggest one closed question that they could use on the questionnaire 2
to ask about euphoria.
1 mark for a closed question + 1 mark for scoring.
Do you feel euphoric when listening to music at home/at a concert? = 1;
yes/no = 1; yes/sometimes/no = 1;
Rate how euphoric you feel at a concert = 1;
0 not at all (euphoric) to 5 very (euphoric) = 1;
9(a)(ii) Suggest one open question that they could use on the questionnaire to 1
ask about euphoria.
1 mark for an open question.
Describe/explain / tell me how you feel when you are listening to music at
home / at a concert = 1;
9(b) For the questions you suggested in (a)(i) and (a)(ii):
9(b)(i) Explain one reason why the data from the open question could be more 2
valid than data from the closed question.
1 mark for explanation.
1 mark for link.
Participants might have wanted to say ‘sometimes’ to the closed question but
could only say yes or no (link);
So the open question would have been more valid as they could have
responded as they wanted (explanation);
An open question is more valid because the participant can explain their
behaviour / why (explanation);
I.e. why they felt more euphoric (link);
9(b)(ii) Explain one reason why the data from the open question could be less 2
valid than data the closed question.
1 mark for explanation.
1 mark for link.
Closed questions produce objective data / don’t need to be interpreted / can’t
be affected by researcher bias (explanation);
Alan and Jocelyn might interpret statement (on open questions) about
euphoria differently (link);
© UCLES 2023 Page 11 of 14
9(c) Explain how Alan and Jocelyn could check their inter-rater reliability 2
when they analyse their data.
1 mark for explanation.
1 mark for detail.
Alan and Jocelyn should take the (open question) responses from the same
participants and analyse them (explanation);
Correlate their scores for the same questions / see if their scores are the
same (if so, inter-coder reliability is high) (detail);
© UCLES 2023 Page 12 of 14
Official mark scheme pages: 11, 12 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-mj-23-q10
May/June 2023 · Paper 23 · Question 10 · 14 marks
10 Dr Caesar is interested in animal phobias in his patients. He wants to
investigate whether there is a correlation between the size of the animal
causing the phobia and the severity of each patient’s animal phobia.
10(a) Describe how Dr Caesar could conduct a correlational study to 10
investigate the relationship between animal size and the severity of the
patients’ phobias.
Three majors for this correlation are:
(a) variable: animal size (operationalisation and quantification of how big the
animal is, must be continuous data)
(b) variable: phobia severity (operationalisation and quantification of
severity of the phobia, must be continuous data)
(c) technique for producing/collecting data i.e. procedure (e.g. tests,
observations, questionnaires).
The minors are:
where: location of participants when completing the study
who: participants (with phobias of varying severity, to various animals),
sampling technique
Also
a statement about whether a positive or negative correlation is expected
sampling technique
sample size
description of how data will analysed, e.g. use of scattergram
ethical issues
Other appropriate responses should also be credited.
Mark according to the levels of response criteria below:
Level 3 (8–10 marks)
Response is described in sufficient detail to be replicable.
Response may have a minor omission.
Use of psychological terminology is accurate and comprehensive.
Level 2 (5–7 marks)
Response is in some detail.
Response has minor omission(s).
Use of psychological terminology is accurate.
Level 1 (1–4 marks)
Response is basic in detail.
Response has major omission(s).
If response is impossible to conduct max. 2.
Use of psychological terminology is mainly accurate.
Level 0 (0 marks)
No response worthy of credit.
© UCLES 2023 Page 13 of 14
10(b) Identify one practical weakness/limitation with the procedure you have 4
described in your answer to part (a) and suggest how your study might
be done differently to overcome the problem.
Do not refer to ethics or sampling in your answer.
Answer will depend on problem identified.
Problems may, for example, be matters of:
Validity
operationalisation
situational/participant variables factors.
Reliability
inter-rater consistency
intra-rater consistency.
This list is not exhaustive and other appropriate responses should also be
credited.
Marks Comment
3–4 Appropriate problem identified.
Appropriate solution is clearly described.
2 Appropriate problem identified
plus
EITHER
Explanation of why it is a problem,
OR
Ineffectual but possible solution described.
1 Appropriate problem identified.
Little or no justification.
0 No response worthy of credit.
© UCLES 2023 Page 14 of 14
Official mark scheme pages: 13, 14 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-on-21-q01
Oct/Nov 2023 · Paper 21 · Question 1 · 6 marks
1(a) Explain what is meant by ‘covert’ observation. 2
1 mark for partial explanation + 1 mark for full explanation
(e.g. explicit / detailed / relevant example)
A covert observer is hidden (from the participants); 1 (partial)
e.g. when an observer uses a camera; 1 (detail)
e.g. (Bandura et al. watched through) a one-way mirror; (example)
When the role of the observer is hidden from the participants; 2 (full)
1(b) Explain one strength of a covert observation. 2
1 mark strength
1 mark detail
The participants will not know the observer is there / will act more naturally /
less risk of changing their behaviour;
less risk of demand characteristics / less risk social desirability / more valid;
1(c) Explain one weakness of a covert observation. 2
1 mark weakness
1 mark detail
Observer less likely to be close to participants / have direct contact with them
/ be able to speak to them;
So their observations may be less detailed / clear / valid;
They may be discovered and influence the participants’ behaviour;
So the results would be less valid;
They may be discovered and upset the participants;
So the study would cause the participants harm / break the guideline of
protection;
They are being watched without their permission;
breaks the ethical guideline of consent; (weakness or detail)
denied participants the right to withdraw; (weakness or detail)
© UCLES 2023 Page 5 of 17
Official mark scheme pages: 5 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-on-21-q02
Oct/Nov 2023 · Paper 21 · Question 2 · 2 marks
2 A hypothesis is ‘There will be a difference in helpfulness between
obedient and disobedient people’.
2(a) State whether this is a directional (one-tailed) hypothesis or a non- 1
directional (two-tailed) hypothesis.
Include a reason for your answer.
1 mark for reason (note there is no mark for stating that it is non-directional)
Non-directional because it does not say whether the helpfulness of obedient
and disobedient people will be greater;
Non-directional because it does not say whether obedient and disobedient
people will more helpful;
Non-directional because it does not say how obedience will affect helpfulness;
Non-directional because it does not say which level of the IV produce a
greater score on the DV; (generic)
Non-directional because it does not say the direction of the effect = 0
Non-directional because it does not say the direction of the effect of
obedience and disobedience = 0
Non-directional because it does not say the direction of the effect on
helpfulness = 0
Directional because… = 0
2(b) Write a null hypothesis for this study. 1
1 mark for null hypothesis (does not have to be operationalised)
There will be no difference between helpfulness in obedient and disobedient
people = 1
There will be no difference between how helpful obedient and disobedient
people are = 1
Any difference between helpfulness in obedient and disobedient people is due
to chance = 1
The level of obedience will not affect helpfulness = 1
There will be no difference between helpfulness and obedient and disobedient
people = 0
There will not be a difference between helpfulness and obedience = 0
Any difference between helpfulness and obedience is due to chance = 0
© UCLES 2023 Page 6 of 17
Official mark scheme pages: 6 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-on-21-q03
Oct/Nov 2023 · Paper 21 · Question 3 · 4 marks
3 The study by Pepperberg (parrot learning) tested a parrot’s
understanding of the concepts of ‘same’ and ‘different’.
Table 3.1 shows the total results for correct responses and incorrect
responses for two categories of objects.
Table 3.1
Total responses to ‘same?’ and
‘different?’ questions
Category of objects
correct incorrect
objects used in training 99 30
objects not used in training 96 17
3(a)(i) Describe the results in Table 3.1. for correct responses. 1
1 mark for description of ‘correct responses’ results
The number / proportion of correct responses was (very) similar for the two
categories of objects;
3(a)(ii) Describe the results in Table 3.1. for incorrect responses. 1
1 mark for description of ‘incorrect responses’ results
The number / proportion of incorrect responses was higher for the objects
used in training (than those not used);
30 for familiar / training objects and 17 for unfamiliar / non-training ones = 0
[NAQ]
3b Whether or not the objects had been used in training affected the 2
accuracy of the parrot’s responses.
Describe how Pepperberg explained this effect.
1 mark description [definitive reasons] + 1 mark detail
Alex received the objects themselves as his primary reward;
the new items were (potentially more) interesting / motivating;
so paid more attention to them;
e.g. chew apart / to try to eat / to use for preening;
© UCLES 2023 Page 7 of 17
Official mark scheme pages: 7 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-on-21-q04
Oct/Nov 2023 · Paper 21 · Question 4 · 2 marks
4 In the study by Canli et al. (brain scans and emotions), all the 2
participants were female.
State the two reasons that Canli et al. gave for using only female
participants in this study.
1 mark for each reason x2
because females show stronger physiological reactivity (than men);
because females are more likely to report intense emotional experiences
(than men);
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 8 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-on-21-q05
Oct/Nov 2023 · Paper 21 · Question 5 · 2 marks
5 In Experiment 1 of the study by Laney et al. (false memory), participants
were randomly allocated to one of two conditions (levels of the
independent variable).
5(a) State what is meant by ‘random allocation’. 1
1 mark
Each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to each group /
condition / level of the IV;
random sampling = 0 [incorrect]
5(b) State why one of the two groups was called a ‘control condition’. 1
1 mark
Because the IV was absent (from this level of the IV);
Because they were not exposed to the IV (of having loved asparagus);
© UCLES 2023 Page 8 of 17
Official mark scheme pages: 8 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-on-21-q06
Oct/Nov 2023 · Paper 21 · Question 6 · 6 marks
6 Describe the ethical guidelines of ‘right to withdraw’ and 6
‘confidentiality’, using any examples.
Definitions / detail: up to a maximum of 4 marks for each guideline
Examples: maximum of 2 marks for each guideline.
Examples can include ones from any studies (core studies, other studies,
candidate’s own studies).
Right to withdraw: ensuring participants know they can leave if they want to /
without reason; (1 for definition)
• and take their data with them / remove their data from the study; (+ 1
detail)
• Milgram denied the participants the right to leave with the verbal prods
(but they were told they could); (+ 1 for example)
• E.g. Piliavin / in a covert observation participants did / would not know
they were being observed so they could not withdraw;
• Schachter and Singer participants could leave if they did not want the
injection; (+ 1 for example)
Confidentiality: participants’ information is anonymous / not individually
identifiable / not made public; (1 for definition)
• (anonymity achieved by) remove names; (+ 1 detail)
• (anonymity achieved by) participants given codes; (+ 1 detail)
• e.g. the participants in Dement and Kleitman were identified by their
initials; (+ 1 for example)
• Saavedra and Silverman’s details known e.g. boy / Hispanic / age, it’s not
enough to identify him; (+ 1 for example)
• number of researchers with access to this should be limited; (+ 1 detail)
• records should be stored safe / securely; (+ 1 detail)
© UCLES 2023 Page 9 of 17
Official mark scheme pages: 9 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-on-21-q07
Oct/Nov 2023 · Paper 21 · Question 7 · 8 marks
7 Two female researchers, Meilin and Nina, are preparing a structured
interview about dreams. Each researcher will interview 10 participants.
7(a) Suggest three ways that Meilin and Nina could standardise their 3
structured interview, other than using the same questions.
1 mark for a way to standardise 3
Questions in the same order;
(Meilin and Nina should wear the) same clothes;
Same tone of voice;
Same length of time to complete the interview;
Same (sort of) location / setting / environment;
Just one of them interview all participants;
7(b) Explain one reason why a structured interview should be standardised. 2
1st mark explanation of reason
2nd mark detail / term
To ensure that each participant is treated in the same way; (explanation)
So that the results are reliable; (term)
If participants were treated differently, variations in their data might not be real
/ might be due to the interview(er); (explanation)
So the results would be invalid; (term)
7(c) Explain one reason why it may be better for Meilin and Nina to use an 2
unstructured interview.
1 mark explanation + 1 mark link
Because they could ask individual participants different questions;
(explanation)
This means they would be able to find out details about each individual’s
dream; (link)
7(d) Outline one ethical problem with interviewing participants about their 1
dreams.
1 mark problem (stating a guideline is not outlining a problem)
participants may be embarrassed about the content; (problem)
participants might not want to reveal them; (problem)
They think the topic was private; (problem)
They might worry that they interviewer would laugh / might tell someone else;
(problem)
© UCLES 2023 Page 10 of 17
Official mark scheme pages: 10 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-on-21-q08
Oct/Nov 2023 · Paper 21 · Question 8 · 9 marks
8 Alf conducted an experiment comparing the range of television
programmes that old and young people watch. He collected his data by
questionnaire and found that young people watch a wider range of
television programmes than old people.
8(a)(i) Suggest one extraneous variable that could affect the range of television 2
programmes that old people watch, other than their age.
1 mark for identifying an extraneous variable (variables such as age,
gender = 0 [NAQ])
1 mark for link to old people
The variety of channels they can access or choose from / whether they have
streaming services; (extraneous variable)
Old people might only have terrestrial channels / not have access to the
internet / satellite TV; (link)
Old people might not have much money; (extraneous variable)
So they might not be able to afford lots of channels / paid TV channels /
broadband; (link)
They might only like / prefer old-fashioned programmes; (link but no reason)
Because modern programmes seem offensive / boring to them; (extraneous
variable)
How well the old people can hear; (extraneous variable)
Because lots of old people are deaf so prefer programmes that are loud / with
subtitles; (link)
© UCLES 2023 Page 11 of 17
8(a)(ii) Explain how Alf could investigate whether the extraneous variable that 2
you suggested in 8(a)(i) was the cause of the difference he found.
1 mark for idea for how to investigate, e.g. add questions to questionnaire /
interview / observe
1 mark for detail
Access to channels:
Add a question to the questionnaire; (idea)
about how many channels they have; (detail)
Only use participants who have access to about the same number of
channels; (detail control)
Broadband:
Ask the young and old people if they have broadband; (idea)
Only use (young and) old people who have broadband; (detail of control)
Streaming services:
Ask about technology and streaming services; (idea)
By using questions such as ‘Do you have more than just terrestrial TV? Y/N’;
(detail of how)
How well people can hear:
Send young and old people for a hearing test; (idea)
To see whether it is volume or background noise that matters; (detail of how)
8(b) Alf used opportunity sampling to obtain participants but would have
preferred to use volunteer sampling.
8(b)(i) Outline what is meant by ‘volunteer sampling’. 1
1 mark for outline
Self-selecting (participants); 1 mark (generic)
Choosing a group of people who choose to join the study = 1 mark (generic)
participants who respond to a request to be in the study from the researcher =
1 mark (generic)
© UCLES 2023 Page 12 of 17
8(b)(ii) Suggest one way that Alf could have used volunteer sampling to obtain 2
both old and young participants.
1 mark for one way to collect a volunteer sample
2nd mark if one way would give good access to both young and old people
Putting an advert in a newspaper; 1st mark
That is read by everyone in the locality; 2nd mark
Putting an advert up at the local swimming baths; 1st mark
That has sessions for young and old people; 2nd mark
Stopping both young and old people as they leave a shop / surgery; 2nd mark
(reverse credit)
To give out cards asking them to join his study; 1st mark
Using emails asking people to join his study; 1st mark
using people aged 10–80 = 0 marks (this is the sample, not how to obtain
volunteers)
Ask (old and young) people he sees / people nearby = 0 [NAQ, opportunity
sample]
8(c) Explain the experimental design that Alf used. 2
1 mark for identification of independent measures
1 mark for explanation linked to Alf’s study
Independent measures / independent groups / between subjects;
young and old people cannot be in the same group / he cannot wait for the
young people to grow old (and retest them);
young and old in two / different groups;
‘Independent’ = 0, ‘individual measures’ = 0
© UCLES 2023 Page 13 of 17
Official mark scheme pages: 11, 12, 13 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-on-21-q09
Oct/Nov 2023 · Paper 21 · Question 9 · 7 marks
9 Calle is planning a correlational study. He is measuring two variables:
happiness and confidence.
Calle’s friend Violet is helping him to plan his questions.
Calle has written two questions:
• For happiness: Are you happy? Answer 1 for yes and 0 for no
• For confidence: How certain do you feel that you will succeed when
you begin a new task? 0 = not at all, 5 = very.
9(a) Violet says that the data Calle would get from his question on happiness 1
would not be suitable to use in a correlation.
Explain why Violet is correct.
1 mark for idea that correlational data must be on a scale
It is only two points / not a scale / nominal data / categorical data / discrete
data;
Note that whether it is quantitative or qualitative data is irrelevant to this
question = 0 marks [NAQ]
9(b) Suggest one problem with the validity of Calle’s question on confidence. 2
1 mark for partial explanation (can be generic)
2 marks for full and linked explanation
Calle is not testing what he claims to be testing; (generic explanation)
both happiness and confidence may also be linked to how likely someone is
to succeed on a new task; (full and linked)
because confidence not just about ‘tasks’; (full and linked)
because ‘task’ is vague, it would depend on what (exactly) it was participants
had to do;
e.g. I’d be confident doing a handstand but not baking a cake;
9(c)(i) Calle changes his question for happiness and uses his original question 1
for confidence. He finds a positive correlation.
Draw a line to show the pattern of Calle’s data, using the axes below.
1 mark for positive correlation (points or line of ‘best fit’)
© UCLES 2023 Page 14 of 17
9(c)(ii) Explain why Calle cannot conclude that greater happiness leads to 3
higher confidence.
1 mark per generic point of explanation
1 mark per link (must be one link for full marks)
Answer must be about:
absence of conclusion about causality or
absence of conclusion about direction of causality
Because a correlation (only shows a relationship and) cannot demonstrate
causality; (generic)
A positive correlation could be caused by either of the variables; (generic)
It could be that greater confidence causes greater happiness; (linked = 2)
Because a third factor could affect both variables; (generic)
i.e., a third factor could affect both happiness and confidence; (linked = 2)
for example having lots of friends could increase both happiness and
confidence; (linked)
for example being tired could decrease both happiness and confidence;
(linked)
© UCLES 2023 Page 15 of 17
Official mark scheme pages: 14, 15 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-on-21-q10
Oct/Nov 2023 · Paper 21 · Question 10 · 14 marks
10 Sophie is planning a natural experiment to investigate the effects of
closing a road on anger in drivers. One road into a town will be closed
for three weeks and the traffic will have to take a longer route. Sophie
wants to investigate whether having to take the longer route makes
drivers angry.
10(a) Describe how Sophie can conduct a natural experiment to investigate 10
whether having to take the longer route makes drivers angry.
Three majors for a natural experiment are:
a) IV – before and during road closure (clearly not under Sophie’s control,
independent measures unless recontacting participants)
b) DV – anger (e.g. heart rate, questions, beeping horn – focus is on data
does not necessarily need technique details)
c) location: near a road (e.g. car park, at home, at destination, e.g. work)
The minors are:
who: drivers (so adults only)
how: controls (same time of day e.g. arriving at work)
Other details for replication:
sampling technique
sample size
ethical issues
description of how data will analysed, e.g. use of averages / bar charts
Other appropriate responses should also be credited.
Mark according to the levels of response criteria below:
Level 3 (8–10 marks)
• Response is described in sufficient detail to be replicable.
• Response may have a minor omission.
• Use of psychological terminology is accurate and comprehensive.
Level 2 (5–7 marks)
• Response is in some detail.
• Response has minor omission(s).
• Use of psychological terminology is accurate.
Level 1 (1–4 marks)
• Response is basic in detail.
• Response has major omission(s).
• If response is impossible to conduct max. 2.
• Use of psychological terminology is mainly accurate.
Level 0 (0 marks)
No response worthy of credit.
© UCLES 2023 Page 16 of 17
10(b) Identify one practical weakness / limitation with the procedure you have 4
described in your answer to part (a) and suggest how your study might
be done differently to overcome the problem.
Do not refer to ethics or sampling in your answer.
Answer will depend on problem identified.
Problems may, for example, be matters of:
Validity
• operationalisation
• situational / participant variables factors
Reliability
• inter-rater consistency
• intra-rater consistency.
This list is not exhaustive and other appropriate responses should also be
credited.
marks comment
3–4 Appropriate problem identified.
Appropriate solution is clearly described.
2 Appropriate problem identified.
plus
EITHER
Explanation of why it is a problem
OR
Ineffectual but possible solution described.
1 Appropriate problem identified.
Little or no justification.
0 No response worthy of credit
© UCLES 2023 Page 17 of 17
Official mark scheme pages: 16, 17 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-on-22-q01
Oct/Nov 2023 · Paper 22 · Question 1 · 3 marks
1 From the study by Pepperberg (parrot learning).
1(a) State the aim of this study. 1 DEFINITIVE
1 mark for aim
To test whether a parrot could understand / learn the concepts of ‘same’ and ‘different’;
To test whether a parrot could understand / learn the concepts of shape / colour / matter;
1(b) Explain why it was necessary to present the parrot with questions in a random order. 2 Accept ‘control’ for
standardisation
1 mark for generic idea – of avoiding bias / order effects Accept increase validity
1 mark for linked detail, e.g. type or consequences of order effects in this study.
e.g. Alex may have given the wrong answer because he was bored at the end. If all one type
of questions, e.g. ‘matter’, were at the end, he could do badly on these;
e.g. questions were in a systematic order, e.g. all ‘shape’ questions together, he may have
been more likely to guess correctly by chance / he would only have guessed a shape;
© UCLES 2023 Page 6 of 21
Official mark scheme pages: 6 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-on-22-q02
Oct/Nov 2023 · Paper 22 · Question 2 · 3 marks
2 Explain the importance of the ethical guidelines of anaesthesia, analgesia and 3 A full mark answer could
euthanasia in relation to the use of animals in research. cover one, two or three
aspects of the guideline.
1 mark for each relevant point. Each point (e.g. ‘pain’ or ‘distress’) can only be used once.
Max 2 for examples. If two marks for examples
they must offer detail.
They help to reduce animal suffering / make sure safe (are well treated);
as analgesia reduces pain;
e.g. after an operation;
as anaesthesia reduces pain and distress;
e.g. during an operation;
as euthanasia prevents endurance of suffering / pain / distress;
by killing the animal;
e.g. if they have been injured in a fight with another animal / by an experimental procedure;
it makes the study more ethical = 0 [REP]
© UCLES 2023 Page 7 of 21
Official mark scheme pages: 7 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-on-22-q03
Oct/Nov 2023 · Paper 22 · Question 3 · 4 marks
3 Participants in the study by Laney et al. (false memory) completed a ‘Restaurant
Questionnaire’, which was formatted to look like a menu.
3(a) Describe the Restaurant Questionnaire. 2 Looked like a menu = 0
[REP]
1 mark for each descriptive point
Asparagus was just one of
Had five categories; the 32 choices to order
e.g. appetizers, soups and salads, entrees, sides, desserts; (any two)
Assessed the desire to eat different dishes; They were NOT asked if
32 different dishes; they liked asparagus on
Based on imagining they were ‘out for a special meal’; this questionnaire
Asked to rate how likely they were to order each item (regardless of price);
1 = ‘definitely no’, ‘8’ = definitely yes’ (circled);
3(b) Explain why it was important that the Restaurant Questionnaire looked like a menu. 2 Accept ‘to increase
ecological validity’
1 mark for explanation
1 mark for link
To make it more realistic / to increase mundane realism; (generic)
To distract the participants from the aim / to reduce demand characteristics; (generic)
So that they were less likely to spot that the study was really about memory; (link)
So the participants did not know that the asparagus information was critical / notice the
sautéed asparagus spears; (link)
© UCLES 2023 Page 8 of 21
Official mark scheme pages: 8 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-on-22-q04
Oct/Nov 2023 · Paper 22 · Question 4 · 4 marks
4 The study by Yamamoto et al. (chimpanzee helping) used a repeated measures
experimental design.
4(a) Outline what is meant by a ‘repeated measures design’. Include an example from the 2
study by Yamamoto et al. in your answer.
1 mark outline
1 mark link
This is where all participants do all/both levels/conditions of the independent variable; (outline)
In Yamamoto et al. each chimp did both the ‘can see’ and ‘cannot see’ condition; (link)
4(b) Explain one advantage of using a repeated measures design for this study, compared 2 Comparison can be
to using an independent measures design. implicit
1 mark explanation
1 mark link
Yamamoto et al. had young and old chimps, and age might affect helpfulness; (link)
so if they were in different groups, this would affect the DV; (explanation)
Individual differences can confound an independent measures design; (generic explanation)
e.g. if some chimps may be more helpful than others; (link)
© UCLES 2023 Page 9 of 21
Official mark scheme pages: 9 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-on-22-q05
Oct/Nov 2023 · Paper 22 · Question 5 · 2 marks
5 In a study that measured two variables, a relationship between the variables was found.
As one variable increased, the other decreased.
5(a) Name this relationship. 1
1 mark for ‘negative correlation’ (accept ‘inverse correlation’)
Positive correlation = 0 (for correlation)
‘Negative’ = 0
‘Negative relationship’ = 0
A relationship = 0
A link = 0
A causal / non-causal relationship = 0 (NAQ)
5(b) Suggest two variables, from any core study, that show this relationship. 1 ‘negative relationship’ = 0
1 mark for both variables from a correlation in a core study (ignore direction of correlation) Dement & Kleitman
(positive correlation)
Baron Cohen (inverse / negative correlation between) AQ and eyes test score duration of time in REM
(in male HFA/AS); and number of words in /
Canli et al. (negative correlation –.66) intensity ratings and normative valence; length of dream narrative
= 0
Any experimental variables = 0 (NAQ)
Canli et al found a positive
Dement and Kleitman = 0 correlation between
Piliavin ‘amount of helping’ = 0 intensity ratings and
arousal
Piliavin et al. negative correlation EXPECTED between number of bystanders and latency
to help = 1 Piliavin et al. positive
Piliavin et al. negative correlation between latency to help and receiving help less =1 correlation FOUND
Canli et al. negative correlation between increase in emotional intensity and number of between number of
pictures forgotten =1 bystanders and latency to
help = 0
© UCLES 2023 Page 10 of 21
Official mark scheme pages: 10 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-on-22-q06
Oct/Nov 2023 · Paper 22 · Question 6 · 6 marks
6 Describe natural experiments and naturalistic observations, using any examples. 6 Only 1 example is needed
to access full 6 marks.
Definitions / detail: up to a maximum of 4 marks for each method. (So 4 marks max if only 1
method) Allow evaluative points,
Examples: maximum of 2 marks for each method. e.g.:
Examples can include ones from any studies (core studies, other studies, candidate’s own natural experiments more
studies). ethical (than lab / field) as
no interference with
Natural experiment: participants’ existence
IV which occurs spontaneously and a measured DV; (definition)
the researcher has to use existing differences in variables rather than deliberately changing natural experiments less
them; (detail) ethical as participants
e.g. instead of Bandura et al. manipulating aggressive stooge, could compare children in unlikely to know they are
violent and in non-violent settings; in a study
e.g. instead of Piliavin et al. using the ‘victims’, they could have waited for situations needing
help on the subway; Natural experiment done
in the natural environment
Naturalistic observation: / real world = 0
participants are observed without interference from researchers / no variables are
manipulated; (definition)
and no controls; (detail)
setting is normal / like normal for the behaviour being observed; (detail)
e.g. if children’s aggression was observed during school playtime; (detail)
e.g. in Dement & Kleitman participants’ eye movements initially observed without interrupting
dreaming;
© UCLES 2023 Page 11 of 21
Official mark scheme pages: 11 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-on-22-q07
Oct/Nov 2023 · Paper 22 · Question 7 · 11 marks
7 James is conducting an interview to investigate topics that could influence anger and
euphoria. He has already written his questions about anger. James needs to write
questions which cover three topics that could increase euphoria. These topics are:
• sports or games
• films or music
• the natural world (e.g. animals and plants, being outside or good weather).
7(a) Suggest one closed question and one open question that James could use to 3
investigate one of his three topics about euphoria. Do not use a rating scale in your
answer.
2 marks for closed question: 1 mark for question and 1 mark for answer options
1 mark for open question
e.g. sports or games:
Closed:
Does playing football make you euphoric?; (question)
Yes / no; (answer options)
Open: When you are playing a game, explain what emotions you experience;
e.g. natural world:
Closed:
Choose how euphoric you are when you are outdoors; (question)
Bored / normal / euphoric / confused / scared; (answer options)
Open: Why does patting an animal make you happy?;
© UCLES 2023 Page 12 of 21
7(b) James has chosen to conduct a semi-structured interview. 4 Accept two strengths in
one answer space.
Explain two strengths of a semi-structured interview.
Many questions are
1 mark for strength + 1 mark for detail (can be a link to James’s study but does not have to be) consistent between
x2 participants = 0
(description)
Many questions are consistent between participants, making the data reliable / the study
replicable; (strength) James can ask each
So James is sure that each participant’s data will be comparable to other participants; (detail, participant both fixed and
generic) new/different questions =
0 (description)
Many questions are consistent between participants, making the study replicable; (strength)
So researchers other than James could repeat his study and use the same questions on
anger / euphoria; (detail, linked)
James can ask each participant both fixed and new/different questions, so they are tailored to
individuals; (strength)
So he can explore the particular sports / films / music / aspects of nature that make different
people happy; (detail, generic)
© UCLES 2023 Page 13 of 21
7(c) James was planning to use opportunity sampling to obtain participants from his
university but has decided random sampling would be better.
7(c)(i) Explain how James could use random sampling to obtain participants from his 2 2 components: (a)
university. acquiring potential
participants and (b)
1 mark for explanation selecting sample.
1 mark for link
Marks:
(a) Start with a numbered list of everyone in the population (ALL), (b) select the sample using a or b but no link = 0
a random number; (how) a or b plus link = 1
(a) Start with a numbered list of students (and staff) at the university, (b) select the sample a plus b no link = 1
using a random number; (how) a and b plus link = 2
(a) Give the whole population numbers, (b) put them in a hat and choose numbers without
looking, to select people; (how)
(a) Give all the university students numbers, (b) put them in a hat and choose numbers
without looking, to select people; (how)
Make sure that all of the population have an equal chance of being chosen = 0 [not explaining
how or linking]
7(c)(ii) Explain one advantage for James of using random sampling compared to using 2 Comparison can be
opportunity sampling. implicit
1 mark for advantage
1 mark for link
it is likely to be representative / more generalisable / is not biased; (advantage)
so there are likely to be people with a range of levels of anger / euphoria; (link)
so there will be people with different interests in sports / films / nature that could affect anger /
euphoria; (link)
© UCLES 2023 Page 14 of 21
Official mark scheme pages: 12, 13, 14 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-on-22-q08
Oct/Nov 2023 · Paper 22 · Question 8 · 7 marks
8 Olive and Durnaz are planning a questionnaire to use in their study, which aims to
investigate forgetting in old people.
8(a) Olive thinks that they should include some irrelevant questions so that the participants
are less likely to guess the aim of the study. Durnaz thinks this is unethical.
8(a)(i) Explain why Olive’s plan to include irrelevant questions would be useful. 2
1 mark for (explanation / term ‘demand characteristics’)
1 mark for linked detail
To reduce demand characteristics; (term)
So that they will not try harder than normal to remember; (explanation or detail)
To stop them from changing their behaviour and hiding problems with forgetting due to age;
(explanation or detail)
To reduce social desirability = 0
8(a)(ii) Explain why Durnaz thinks that Olive’s plan would be unethical. 2 Allow deception because
there are irrelevant
1 mark for explanation questions so misleading
1 mark for identifying ethical guideline: protection from harm / deception / privacy / informed the participants
consent / debriefing.
0 marks: confidentiality / right to withdraw Accept protection from
1 mark for linked detail harm because old people
might be upset if they
The old people would believe all the questions were part of the study; (detail) forget a lot
So it would mean they couldn’t give fully informed consent / were being deceived; (guideline)
It might break the guideline of protection from harm; (guideline)
If doing extra questions might make the old people tired or distressed;
© UCLES 2023 Page 15 of 21
8(b) Olive and Durnaz want to be able to generalisable their findings to all old people.
8(b)(i) Suggest one variable that could affect memory in old people, other than age. 1 Accept memory disorders
Gender
1 mark for relevant variable. Mental health
Whether they live alone; There will be a wide
How active they are; variety of relevant answers
Medication;
8(b)(ii) Explain why the variable you suggested in (b)(i) could affect memory in old people. 2 Gender: men’s memory
declines more than
1 mark for explanation women’s in old age
1 mark for detail
Whether they live alone:
People who live alone have to remember more for themselves; (explanation)
making their memory better (through practice); (detail)
People who live alone have to remember more for themselves; (explanation)
so their memory in the test may be worse (fatigue); (detail)
People who live alone may have worse memories as they don’t have the chance to talk to
other people; (explanation)
And talking to people may help younger people to keep their memories busy; (detail)
How active they are:
Active old people will use their memories more; (explanation)
e.g. to remember bus times; (detail)
Medication:
May have a side effect on memory;
May make them more sleepy / sleep deprived, so memory is impaired;
© UCLES 2023 Page 16 of 21
Official mark scheme pages: 15, 16 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-on-22-q09
Oct/Nov 2023 · Paper 22 · Question 9 · 6 marks
9 Gagan has collected data about personality characteristics. Two of the questions he
asked were:
• Personality question:
Which word best describes your personality? Angry / Confident / Kind / Worried.
• Shyness question:
How shy do you feel in new situations on a scale of 0–5? (0 = not at all, 5 = very).
9(a) Name the most appropriate measure of central tendency to use with the data from each 2
question.
1 mark for each correct measure of central tendency
Personality: mode
Shyness: median (accept the mean).
9(b) Name the most appropriate type of graph for Gagan to use to display the results from 1 Accept pie chart
the ‘personality question’.
1 mark for bar chart / bar graph (definitive)
9(c) When Gagan analyses the data from the ‘shyness question’, he finds that the scores 3
are normally distributed.
Sketch a graph using the axes below to show the pattern of Gagan’s data for the
‘shyness question’. You must label the axes.
1 mark; y-axis label ‘frequency’ / number of responses’ / people /
participants
1 mark: x-axis label (score on) ‘shyness’ (scale)
1 mark: x-axis scale (0–5)
1 mark: symmetrical normal distribution shape (accept as a line,
bars or points)
Must be a bell shape for full 3 marks
© UCLES 2023 Page 17 of 21
Official mark scheme pages: 17 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-on-22-q10
Oct/Nov 2023 · Paper 22 · Question 10 · 14 marks
10 Sara wants to test whether people with a higher intelligence quotient (IQ) are better at
concentrating. She will conduct a laboratory experiment and already has a test for
measuring the IQ of the participants.
10(a) Describe how Sara can conduct a laboratory experiment to test whether people with a 10 Accept ‘high’ and ‘low’ IQ
higher IQ are better at concentrating than people with a lower IQ.
Three majors for a laboratory experiment are:
a) IV: intelligence (operationalisation: how to use scores from the IQ test to make two
groups)
b) DV: attention (operationalisation: scoring)
c) controls (e.g. limiting distractions, other factors that could affect attention / performance
on IQ test)
The minors are:
• where – location of participants when data is collected (i.e. lab)
• who – participants
Other details for replication:
• experimental design (any are appropriate here)
• sampling technique
• sample size
• description of how data will analysed, e.g. use of measures of central tendency and
spread, bar charts
• ethical issues
Other appropriate responses should also be credited.
© UCLES 2023 Page 18 of 21
10(a) Mark according to the levels of response criteria below:
Additional guidance
Level 3 (8–10 marks) 10 marks is reserved for:
• Response is described in sufficient • Response includes what, how, how: all
detail to be replicable. three named elements with sufficient
• Response may have a minor detail of each (e.g. operationalisation,
omission. description) for replication
• Use of psychological terminology is • Some reference to ethical guidelines
accurate and comprehensive.
For 8 marks:
• Response includes what, how, how: all
three named elements with sufficient
detail of each (e.g. operationalisation,
description) for replication.
• Some reference to ethical issues
Level 2 (5–7 marks) For 5–7 marks:
• Response is in some detail. • Response includes all three major
• Response has minor omission(s). elements but may lack some details
• Use of psychological terminology is making it difficult to replicate
accurate.
Level 1 (1–4 marks) If the study described is not an experiment,
• Response is basic in detail. max 4
• Response has major omission(s).
• If response is impossible to conduct
max. 2.
• Use of psychological terminology is
mainly accurate.
Level 0 (0 marks)
No response worthy of credit.
© UCLES 2023 Page 19 of 21
10(b) Identify one practical weakness / limitation with the procedure you have described in 4 Note, the change must be
your answer to part (a) and suggest how your study might be done differently to a change to ‘the
overcome the problem. procedure you have
Do not refer to ethics or sampling in your answer. described’, it cannot be a
different method (e.g. case
Answer will depend on problem identified. study) but it could be a
different sort of experiment
Problems may, for example, be matters of: (e.g. lab or field)
Validity
• operationalisation
• situational / participant variables factors
Reliability
• inter-rater consistency
• intra-rater consistency
This list is not exhaustive and other appropriate responses should also be credited.
© UCLES 2023 Page 20 of 21
10(b)
marks comment Additional guidance
3-4 Appropriate problem identified. 4 marks: specific problem and specific solution
Appropriate solution is clearly
described. 3 marks: generic problem specific solution or
specific problem generic solution
2 Appropriate problem identified. Appropriate problem (directly related to a specific
plus aspect of suggested procedure) identified,
EITHER no solution.
Explanation of why it is a
problem OR
OR
Ineffectual but possible Generic problem with weak / generic solution.
solution described.
1 Appropriate problem identified. Specific or generic problem identified (e.g. even
Little or no justification. when they suggest a ‘problem’ that is nothing to
do with the study they have designed)
0 No response worthy of credit
© UCLES 2023 Page 21 of 21
Official mark scheme pages: 18, 19, 20, 21 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-on-23-q01
Oct/Nov 2023 · Paper 23 · Question 1 · 3 marks
1 A matched pairs design is an experimental design that can be used in
studies comparing two conditions, or levels, of an independent variable.
1(a) Explain what is meant by a ‘matched pairs design’. 1
1 mark for full explanation
Participants are arranged (accept ‘matched / ‘put into pairs’) so that two
similar individuals (with shared characteristics important to the study) go into
different conditions/levels of the IV; (Accept: one of each matched pair goes
into each condition);
1(b) Explain one advantage of using a matched pairs design compared to 2
using a repeated measures design.
1 mark for advantage
1 mark for detail
It reduces the risk of order/fatigue/practice effects;
As in repeated measures they are tested twice so might get worse (or better);
It reduces the risk of demand characteristics / participants are less likely to
guess the aim (of the study);
participants only see one condition / only participate in one level of the IV /
(accept: they only do the experiment once);
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 5 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-on-23-q02
Oct/Nov 2023 · Paper 23 · Question 2 · 3 marks
2 A range can be calculated when numerical scores are collected from
participants in a study.
2(a) Define the term ‘range’. 1
1 mark for definition
How spread out / widely distributed / dispersed the scores are;
2(b) Describe how the range of ‘hours spent asleep’ could have been 2
calculated in the study by Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreams).
1st mark for description of how
2nd mark for relating this to hours of sleep
Take the smallest score from the largest score / the difference between the
smallest and largest values = 1
Take the smallest score from the largest score and add one = 1
Take the shortest number of hours slept from the longest number of hours = 2
Take the difference between the shortest number of hours slept and the
longest = 2
Take the shortest number of hours slept from the longest (and add one) = 2
© UCLES 2023 Page 5 of 17
Official mark scheme pages: 5 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-on-23-q03
Oct/Nov 2023 · Paper 23 · Question 3 · 5 marks
3 The reliability of a study is affected by the measures (scales or tasks)
chosen by the researcher and the way that these are used when
conducting the study.
3(a) One way to check reliability is the test-retest technique. 3
Describe how this technique checks reliability.
1 mark for description of what test-retest is + 1 mark for detail
1 mark for description of what test-retest shows
The test-retest technique compares two sets of data; (what test-retest is)
e.g. by the same researchers / using the same measures, / with the same (or
a similar) group of people; (detail)
if the first and second sets of data are the same, the measure is reliable;
(what it shows)
if people get similar / the same scores each time, the measure has test-retest
reliability; (what it shows)
inter-rater reliability = 0 (NAQ)
3(b) Another type of reliability is inter-rater reliability. 2
Explain how the inter-rater reliability of studies can be improved.
1 mark for partial explanation + 1 mark for detail
For full 2 marks the response must improve reliability
Raters can be given operational definitions / instructions to help them to
agree; (explanation)
Raters can be asked to work together / view the same (videoed) behaviour /
responses; (explanation)
And do this until they produce the same records (from the same raw data /
interview transcript / video); (improvement)
© UCLES 2023 Page 6 of 17
Official mark scheme pages: 6 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-on-23-q04
Oct/Nov 2023 · Paper 23 · Question 4 · 3 marks
4 In each of the core studies, the researchers report their conclusions.
4(a) Explain what is meant by the term ‘conclusions’, using an example from 2
a core study from the social approach.
1 mark for explanation
1 mark for social core study example
e.g. conclusions are the generalisations that can be made from the results of
a study; (definition)
e.g. a generalisations from Piliavin et al. is that people are more likely to help
same-race victims; (link)
e.g. the outcome of accepting a hypothesis, such as whether differences or
correlation exists; (definition)
e.g. Milgram concluded that the Germans weren’t different in terms of
obedience; (link)
4(b) In the study by Baron-Cohen et al. (eyes test), two main conclusions 1
were drawn.
Outline one of these conclusions.
1 mark for a conclusion
There is a sex difference in autistic traits / females are better than males at
detecting emotion in eyes;
People with AS/HFA / autistic spectrum disorders have an underdeveloped
theory of mind / do not identify emotions well;
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 7 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-on-23-q05
Oct/Nov 2023 · Paper 23 · Question 5 · 2 marks
5 In the study by Saavedra and Silverman (button phobia), a boy was 2
repeatedly asked to use the Feelings Thermometer. Other questions
investigated his phobia further and showed that he disliked buttons
touching his body.
Explain the type of interview used in this study.
1 mark for identifying semi-structured interview
1 mark for explanation of what made the interview semi-structured
semi-structured interview (accept: an interview with structured and
unstructured parts);
because there were some standardised questions and some flexible ones
(accept: questions were repeated or different);
© UCLES 2023 Page 7 of 17
Official mark scheme pages: 7 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-on-23-q06
Oct/Nov 2023 · Paper 23 · Question 6 · 6 marks
6 Describe the ethical guidelines of ‘housing’ and ‘rewards’ in relation to 6
animals, using any examples.
Definitions/detail: up to a maximum of 4 marks for each guideline.
Examples: maximum of 2 marks for each guideline.
Examples can include ones from any studies (core studies, other studies,
candidate’s own studies).
Housing:
Good housing should avoid pain/distress for the animals;
by providing for essential needs for species / age / sex / reproductive stage /
activity level;
e.g. warmth/cover;
(suitable) food/water;
nest sites to feel safe;
sufficient space for exercise/‘roaming’;
So that social animals have company (and are not distressed by being alone /
isolated);
So that solitary animals do not experience trauma from not being able to get
away from other individuals;
So that there is no overcrowding which could cause aggression;
by not cleaning too frequently (change of smell could be upsetting);
by not locating animals where they could become distressed e.g. near natural
predators;
e.g. Yamamoto et al. housed the chimpanzees, which are social animals, in
groups;
e.g. Pepperberg allowed the parrot space to fly in the laboratory;
Rewards:
Use positive experiences (to change behaviour);
rather than punishment;
to reduce pain/distress for animals;
e.g. Pepperberg gave the parrot the object as a reward during testing;
e.g. Pepperberg praised the parrot as a reward during testing;
© UCLES 2023 Page 8 of 17
Official mark scheme pages: 8 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-on-23-q07
Oct/Nov 2023 · Paper 23 · Question 7 · 7 marks
7 Dr Casson conducted a field experiment to compare the emotions that
people show when they respond to shop assistants who are either
wearing a uniform or casual clothes. She asked the assistants at her
local shop to wear a uniform on Saturdays and wear casual clothes on
Sundays.
7(a) Explain why Dr Casson’s study was a field experiment. 3
1 mark for ‘experiment’
1 mark for setting
Plus 1 mark for further detail of setting or for controls (generic or linked)
There must be at least one link for full three marks
It is an ‘experiment’ i.e. has an IV (of clothing: uniform or casual) and a DV;
The IV is manipulated by the experimenter (generic detail)
IV is clothing / uniform or casual; (linked detail)
The DV is measured by the experimenter (generic detail)
DV is emotions (of shoppers); (linked detail)
The setting is the normal location for the behaviour being studied; (generic)
we normally respond socially to people in shops; (linked detail)
Some controls are possible; (generic)
These help to ensure only the IV causes changes in the DV; (generic detail)
Other factors such as what the shop assistants wore was controlled; (linked
detail)
7(b)(i) Suggest how Dr Casson could have measured the dependent variable in 2
her study.
1 mark for identifying DV what will be measured
1 mark for suggestion for how to measure
(the DV is) the people’s emotional behaviour / expression; (what)
Could be measured (by observing) as whether they respond with a smile or
not / how much they buy / fill in a form saying how they felt towards the shop
assistant; (how)
By observing) frowning; (what)
How often / number of; (how)
© UCLES 2023 Page 9 of 17
7(b)(ii) Suggest one reason why it may be more difficult to measure the 2
dependent variable in a field experiment than in a laboratory experiment.
1 mark for reason
1 mark for detail (response does not have to link to Dr Casson’s study but this
could be detail)
It would be obvious to use scales/tests/questionnaires; (reason)
Which could make the data less valid; (detail – generic)
people would think it was strange to be interviewed on their emotions towards
shop assistants in a lab; (detail – linked)
It wouldn’t be ‘normal for the situation’ to introduce researcher-based testing;
(reason)
participants might alter their behaviour (so become more socially desirable) if
they knew they were in a study; (detail)
It would make the aim of the study obvious to use; (reason)
Must rely on existing ways to measure the DV / measuring the DV by
observation / through untrained observes; (reason)
Which could make the data less reliable; (detail- generic)
E.g. it might be hard to record the participants emotional responses correctly;
(detail – linked)
Controls are irrelevant (NAQ)
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 9, 10 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-on-23-q08
Oct/Nov 2023 · Paper 23 · Question 8 · 8 marks
8 Keung and Jovita are planning a correlational study to investigate the
relationship between a person’s physical activity level and their
attention level. They each make a different prediction about their results.
8(a) Suggest how Keung and Jovita could measure the physical activity level 1
of their participants.
1 mark for suggestion of measure (not just technique)
how many steps a person takes in a day (recorded using a Fitbit / app on their
phone);
how many hours the person spends out of bed per day;
8(b) Write a null hypothesis for Keung and Jovita’s correlational study. 1
1 mark for a null hypothesis
There will be no correlation/relationship/link between activity level and
attention;
Any correlation/relationship/link between activity level and attention is due to
chance;
© UCLES 2023 Page 10 of 17
8(c) Keung predicted that there would be a positive correlation and Jovita 2
predicted that there would be a negative correlation.
Their results show that a higher physical activity level is related to a
lower attention level.
Explain whether Keung or Jovita’s prediction was correct.
1 mark for generic explanation of negative correlation
2 marks for link to study
Jovita (was correct) = 0
A negative correlation is where one variable goes up the other goes down = 1
(Jovita was correct because) activity goes up as anxiety goes down = 1
Jovita suggested a negative correlation, which is where as one variable goes
up, the other goes down. In this case as activity goes up, attention goes down
= 2
8(d) Keung and Jovita plot a scatter diagram of their results. 2
Explain how they can see the strength of the correlation from their
scatter diagram.
1 mark for generic explanation of how to interpret correlational strength from a
scatter diagram
1 mark for link
how close the points are to the line shows strength of a correlation;
(explanation only)
if the points are close to the line the correlation is strong; (explanation only)
the points represent the score for physical and attention level (for each
participant) = 1 (link)
if physical activity level is strongly related to attention level the points would
be close to the line; (explanation and link)
© UCLES 2023 Page 11 of 17
8(e) Keung and Jovita’s friend says that their results show that the 2
difference in physical activity level is affecting attention level.
Explain why they cannot draw this conclusion from their research.
1 mark for the generic explanation that correlations cannot show causality
1 mark for link (an illustration/explanation of why this cannot apply in this
case)
Correlations cannot judge causality (because they do not manipulate
variables); (generic explanation)
They wouldn’t know whether activity level was changing attention, vice versa,
or both changed due to something else; (link)
Correlations do not demonstrate cause and effect relationships; (generic
explanation)
Activity and attention could both change because of a third variable; (link)
Only experiments, not correlations, can investigate causality; (generic
explanation)
Old age might make both activity and attention levels change; (link)
© UCLES 2023 Page 12 of 17
Official mark scheme pages: 10, 11, 12 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-on-23-q09
Oct/Nov 2023 · Paper 23 · Question 9 · 9 marks
9 Dr Wilson is conducting an experiment on memory for complex,
coloured shapes. He is using students for his sample. Dr Wilson intends
to generalise his results widely, to understand how well internet-users
remember visual stimuli.
9(a) Suggest how one extraneous variable could affect Dr Wilson’s study. 2
1 mark identification of extraneous variable
1 mark for effect on study (linked)
(situational variable of) participant’s access to the internet; (extraneous
variable)
If they are unfamiliar with the internet they might be distracted (by the colours
/ so not remember well); (linked effect)
(participant variable of) colour blindness; (extraneous variable)
(colour blind participants’ results invalid as) it would be harder for them to
see/recall the shapes’ colours; (linked effect)
How good the participant’s memory is / their age (students are younger) /
gender; (extraneous variable)
Older people might be more forgetful; (linked effect)
What the students are studying; (extraneous variable)
Art students would be better than other students as they are good at colours
and shapes; (linked effect)
Weather / temperature / noise; (extraneous variable)
Noises might distract participants from the task so they remember less;
(linked effect)
9(b)(i) Dr Wilson is using a volunteer sample of students from his university. 2
Suggest how he could recruit his sample.
1 mark for volunteer sampling process
1 mark for detail
He could put up adverts (asking for participants); (volunteer sampling)
Around the university / in the students’ residences; (detail)
He could invite students during his lectures to contact him by email if they
want to volunteer; (volunteer sampling)
So that they would have to reply to him to become a participant; (detail)
Asking students to (volunteer to) participate after lectures = 0 [opportunity
sampling]
(Dr Wilson) using all his students = 0 [opportunity sampling]
© UCLES 2023 Page 13 of 17
9(b)(ii) Suggest one advantage of using a volunteer sample compared to an 2
opportunity sample.
1 mark for advantage of volunteer sample
1 mark for detail (comparison can be implicit or explicit)
Volunteers come to the researcher; (advantage)
Whereas in opportunity sampling the researcher has to go and find them /
so is quicker; (comparison)
Volunteers more willing (as have chosen to participate) than participants
found by opportunity; (comparative advantage)
Which is good because the study takes a long time; (detail)
Volunteers have more time (on average than the general population) than
those found by opportunity; (comparative ad)
So are more likely to be able to stay for the whole of (the long) study / are
less likely to drop out; (detail)
9(b)(iii) Suggest one disadvantage of using a volunteer sample compared to an 2
opportunity sample.
1 mark for disadvantage of volunteer sample
1 mark for detail (comparison can be implicit or explicit)
It is slower; (disadvantage)
There may be not replies to adverts whereas there may be people on the
street; (comparison)
Volunteers may be similar to each other; (disadvantage)
Volunteers generally better educated than participants found by opportunity;
(comparative disadvantage)
problematic because they may (have more/less engagement with the
internet so) be less representative; (detail)
Volunteers have more time (on average) than those found by opportunity;
(comparative disadvantage)
So may be more exposed to colours e.g. if they do painting / art classes;
(detail)
9(c) One reason why Dr Wilson cannot generalise the results from his study 1
is his sampling technique.
State one reason why he should not generalise the results from his
students to all internet users, other than his sampling technique.
1 mark for reason why generalisation should not be made from students to all
internet users
Students younger so more able to use the internet (than average / than older
users);
Students need to do research for their studies so use the internet a lot / have
more practice;
© UCLES 2023 Page 14 of 17
Official mark scheme pages: 13, 14 · source PDF URL
9990-2023-on-23-q10
Oct/Nov 2023 · Paper 23 · Question 10 · 14 marks
10 Dr Birkin is planning an observational study of children’s imaginary play
behaviour (for example, a child might use a leaf as a plate, or a big
cardboard box as a boat or a house).
10(a) Describe how Dr Birkin could conduct an observational study of 10
children to investigate their imaginary play behaviour.
Three majors for an observational are:
(a) behaviours recorded (e.g. definition / operationalisation of behavioural
categories / qualitative obs / objects)
(b) observation – participant / non-participant
– naturalistic / controlled
– structured / unstructured
– covert / overt
(c) observation: – more details – participant / non-participant
– naturalistic / controlled
– structured / unstructured
– covert / overt
The minors are:
where – location of participants when data is collected (e.g. university
playroom / nursery / homes)
who – participants (young children)
Other details for replication:
• sampling technique
• sample size
• description of how data will analysed, e.g. use of measures of central
tendency and spread, bar charts
• ethical issues
© UCLES 2023 Page 15 of 17
10(a) Other appropriate responses should also be credited.
Mark according to the levels of response criteria below:
Level 3 (8–10 marks)
• Response is described in sufficient detail to be replicable.
• Response may have a minor omission.
• Use of psychological terminology is accurate and comprehensive.
Level 2 (5–7 marks)
• Response is in some detail.
• Response has minor omission(s).
• Use of psychological terminology is accurate.
Level 1 (1–4 marks)
• Response is basic in detail.
• Response has major omission(s).
• If response is impossible to conduct max. 2.
• Use of psychological terminology is mainly accurate.
Level 0 (0 marks)
No response worthy of credit.
© UCLES 2023 Page 16 of 17
10(b) Identify one practical weakness/limitation with the procedure you have 4
described in your answer to part (a) and suggest how your study might
be done differently to overcome the problem.
Do not refer to ethics or sampling in your answer.
Answer will depend on problem identified.
Problems may, for example, be matters of:
Validity
• operationalisation
• situational / participant variables factors
Reliability
• inter-rater consistency
• intra-rater consistency.
This list is not exhaustive and other appropriate responses should also be
credited.
marks comment
3–4 Appropriate problem identified.
Appropriate solution is clearly described.
2 Appropriate problem identified.
plus
EITHER
Explanation of why it is a problem
OR
Ineffectual but possible solution described.
1 Appropriate problem identified.
Little or no justification.
0 No response worthy of credit
© UCLES 2023 Page 17 of 17
Official mark scheme pages: 15, 16, 17 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-m-22-q01
March 2024 · Paper 22 · Question 1 · 5 marks
1(a) Explain what is meant by a ‘negative correlation’. 2 Explanation = 1 [Relationship/link]
Detail/ = 1 [one up one down]
Relationship/link between two variables; (explanation)
As one (variable/thing) goes up the other goes down;
(explanation/detail) =1
1(b) Explain one ethical advantage of a correlational study 3 Advantage = 1
compared to an experiment, using any psychological Detail = 1
example. Example = 1 (link to advantage can be implicit)
Can investigate variables that would be unsafe to change; Practical advantage = 0 [NAQ]
(advantage)
because variables do not have to be manipulated,
correlations are better; (detail)
e.g. the amount of sleep someone has; (example)
Can study variables that would be distressing to
manipulate; (advantage)
e.g. how many friends a person has; (example)
Question Answer Marks Guidance
Official mark scheme pages: 6 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-m-22-q02
March 2024 · Paper 22 · Question 2 · 2 marks
2 The memory score in the study by Andrade (doodling) 2
was calculated using two sources of data. One source
was the number of ‘correct responses’ of names and
places given by the participants.
Describe how the total memory score was calculated.
Second source of data = 1st mark
How the memory score was calculated = 2nd mark
‘false alarms’ / errors; (second source of data) [1st]
…were taken away from the correct responses score (to
give the memory score); (how) [2nd]
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 6 of 19
Official mark scheme pages: 6 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-m-22-q03
March 2024 · Paper 22 · Question 3 · 3 marks
3 In the study by Dement and Kleitman (sleep and
dreams), participants were given instructions before the
study about what they should and should not do.
3(a) Outline one of these instructions. 1 Outline of control = 1
no alcohol / no coffee / no caffeine / eat normally / arrive
before normal bedtime;
3(b) Explain why the instruction you described in part (a) 2 Explanation = 1 (linked)
was important to the validity of the study. Detail = 1 (does not have to be linked)
(ignore second reasons, must be explanation not just
no alcohol / no coffee: statement)
drugs affect dreams/sleep; (explanation)
so the participants’ dream/sleep would not be
representative; (detail)
to reduce participant variables; (detail)
arrive just before bed:
if they came earlier/later they might not feel sleepy;
(explanation)
so could be sure changes in DV (of sleep) were due to the
IV; (detail)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 7 of 19
Official mark scheme pages: 7 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-m-22-q04
March 2024 · Paper 22 · Question 4 · 8 marks
4 The study by Perry et al. (personal space) measured
preferred interpersonal distance (stop distance) in a
computerised virtual room.
4(a) Preferred interpersonal distance was measured in Table 4.1. Preferred interpersonal distances in the control
relation to: (placebo) condition for the high empathy group.
• a ball
• a friend
ball friend stranger authority
• a stranger
figure
• an authority figure.
Mean stop 21 11 39 34
distance
4(a)(i) Draw a bar chart of the data in Table 4.1, on the axes 4 1 mark for each correct feature. Max 3 marks if bars are not
provided. You must label the axes. separate.
x-axis label: ‘Being approached by a…’ / protagonist /
stooge / object; OWTTE
x-axis units: ball / friend / stranger / authority figure;
y-axis label: Mean stop distance;
x-axis units: at least 11-39;
all bar heights correct;
4(a)(ii) Explain why a bar chart is the appropriate graph to use 1
to plot this data.
Definitive: (IV is) categorical / discrete data / nominal
categories (OWTTE/ORA e.g. it’s not continuous)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 8 of 19
4(a)(iii) State one conclusion from this data. 1 Conclusion = 1
Must be a conclusion not a repetition of the results.
e.g. Smaller distance for a friend than a stranger;
e.g. balls are approached less than friends but more than
strangers;
4(b) Suggest one ethical strength of using a computerised 2 Ethical strength = 1
virtual room to measure preferred interpersonal Linked detail = 1
distance.
Less risk of invading privacy; (strength)
Less risk of invading protection from (psychological)
harm; (strength)
participants might be upset by close real people; (linked
detail)
Question Answer Marks Guidance
Official mark scheme pages: 8, 9 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-m-22-q05
March 2024 · Paper 22 · Question 5 · 4 marks
5(a)(i) Define the term ‘population’. 1 Definition = 1
Individuals who share a characteristic / have something in Note: ‘people from the same area/place/country/location /
common; ethnic group’ = 0 [this is an example, not a definition]
5(a)(ii) Outline one example of a population from a core study 1 Example from a core study = 1
from the social approach. core study must be evident but may be implicit
Piliavin subway passengers / people on the trains / people
on routes at the time being used for the study;
Milgram readers of the (New Haven / local) newspapers;
Perry et al. undergraduates / people from Haifa university /
from Israel;
5(b)(i) Define the term ‘sample’. 1 Definition = 1
individuals who participate in a study;
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 9 of 19
5(b)(ii) Outline one example of a sample from a core study from 1 Example from a core study = 1
the social approach. Outline may or may not include sample size
Piliavin passengers in the carriages with the observers /
4500 people;
Milgram 40 men / 40 people with different occupations /
volunteers responding to the advert;
Perry et al. 54 (40) men;
Question Answer Marks Guidance
Official mark scheme pages: 9, 10 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-m-22-q06
March 2024 · Paper 22 · Question 6 · 6 marks
6 Describe practice effects and fatigue effects, using any 6 1 mark for each definition/point of detail, up to a maximum of
example(s). 2 for each term/concept.
1 mark for each example, max 2 for each term/concept.
order effects are consequences of doing tests/tasks more Examples can include examples from any studies (core
than once; (definition) studies, other studies, candidate’s own studies).
e.g. in a repeated measures design; (detail) Max 4 if no examples or if only about one term/concept.
or in a longitudinal study; (detail) Only 1 example needed to access 6 marks.
can be overcome with counterbalancing; (detail)
practice effects
Participants improve with repetition; (definition)
e.g. remembering the answers to a test; (example)
e.g. getting more skilled on a physical task; (example)
fatigue effects
Participants get worse with repetition; (definition)
e.g. getting bored; (detail)
or tired from answering questions; (detail/example)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 10 of 19
Official mark scheme pages: 10 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-m-22-q07
March 2024 · Paper 22 · Question 7 · 7 marks
7 Kavi has noticed that when customers leave a takeaway
restaurant, they often drop rubbish. He plans to conduct
a field experiment to investigate this. Kavi will place
rubbish in the street or remove any rubbish so that he
can record data in two conditions:
• when the street has 10 pieces of rubbish
• when the street has no rubbish.
Kavi will observe ten customers in each condition. He
will count how many customers in each condition drop
rubbish.
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 11 of 19
7(a) Draw a table that Kavi could use to collect his data. 3
Rubbish No rubbish
number of people dropping
rubbish
3 marks – would collect data with full detail (tally/count /
participant numbers)
Rubbish No rubbish
number of people
2 marks – identifies 2 levels of IV but not DV
Participant number Drops rubbish Doesn’t drop
rubbish
1
2
3
1 mark – table outline / has DV but not both levels of IV
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 12 of 19
7(b) Kavi chose a narrow street rather than a wide street for 2 Reason for affecting validity = 1
his experiment. Detail = 1
Must be linked to study for 2 marks
Suggest one reason why this choice was important for
the validity of Kavi’s experiment.
so the IV was definitely affecting the DV; (reason)
to ensure they saw the rubbish; (linked detail)
To be sure he would see dropping of rubbish; (linked detail)
Or the DV measure would be invalid; (reason)
Easier to observe; (reason)
7(c) Explain why it was necessary for all the rubbish to be 2 Explanation = 1
removed in the second condition. Detail = 1
Must be linked to study for 2 marks
Otherwise there might be litter left from previous customers /
other rubbish; (linked detail)
Which would invalidate his manipulation of the IV;
(explanation)
To make it a control (condition); (explanation)
To be sure only the IV of rubbish present affected the DV;
(linked detail)
Question Answer Marks Guidance
Official mark scheme pages: 11, 12, 13 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-m-22-q08
March 2024 · Paper 22 · Question 8 · 7 marks
8 Cerys is observing a class of children who are learning
to count. She is introduced to the class by the teacher,
but then sits separately from the children to record her
data.
8(a)(i) Explain whether Cerys is conducting a participant 1 Explanation = 1
observation or a non-participant observation.
Non-participant (definitive) [no marks for just stating]
because she is separate / not involved with the class;
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 13 of 19
8(a)(ii) For the answer you have given in part (a)(i): 2 Explanation of strength of non-participant observation = 1
detail = 1
Explain one strength of this type of observation.
Less risk of social desirability / demand characteristics;
(explanation)
because her presence will have less influence (on the
children than if she joined in); (detail)
8(b) Cerys uses a structured observation.
8(b)(i) Suggest two behavioural categories that Cerys could 2 Behavioural category = 1 (x2)
use to measure how well the children are learning to Must be an observable behaviour (not e.g. an emotion or
count. belief)
Counting to 5 correctly;
Making a mistake;
Missing out a number;
Pointing at a number but saying a different number;
Counting on fingers;
8(b)(ii) In relation to using one of the behavioural categories 2 Brief practical problem = 1
you have suggested in part (b)(i): Clear and detailed practical problem = 2 (e.g. ambiguity in
scoring, effect on results)
Explain one practical problem that Cerys could have. Ethical problem = 0
Making a mistake:
Cerys won’t know whether the child couldn’t count or was
distracted so didn’t try to count; = 2 (ambiguity)
Missing out a number:
The child may be shy/uncertain so speak too quietly;
Cerys may think they have missed out a number / Cerys will
underestimate their ability; (effect on results)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 14 of 19
Official mark scheme pages: 13, 14 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-m-22-q09
March 2024 · Paper 22 · Question 9 · 4 marks
9 Nila is using a questionnaire to investigate adults’ use
and understanding of the internet. Four of her questions
are:
A Describe how useful the internet is to you.
B Explain whether you would like to use the internet
more than you do.
C How confident are you that you could send an
email? 1 = not confident at all, 5 = very confident.
D ‘Using the internet can be dangerous.’ Do you
agree? yes / no / not sure.
9(a) Identify one closed question from A to D. 1 Accept responses that have copied out the question instead
of giving a letter
1 mark for C or D (DEFINITIVE]
9(b) Identify one open question from A to D. 1 Accept responses that have copied out the question instead
of giving a letter
1 mark for A or B (DEFINITIVE)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 15 of 19
9(c) Nila wants to add this question to explore how adults 2 Explanation = 1 (generic or linked)
use social media: Detail = 1 (generic or linked)
How do you use social media? Tick all that apply.
• to connect with colleagues
• to connect with family
• to discover local events.
Explain one strength of Nila’s question about the use of
social media.
Her (closed) question gives quantitative data; (explanation)
so can be used to compare between participants; (detail)
so can be easily analysed / totalled / graphed; (detail)
so the data is objective; (detail / explanation)
Her (closed) question is less likely to produce lies;
(explanation)
as they only have to choose; (detail)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 16 of 19
Official mark scheme pages: 15, 16 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-m-22-q10
March 2024 · Paper 22 · Question 10 · 14 marks
10 Henri feels relaxed when he smells flowers. He thinks To mark Q10(a), create four ‘imaginary columns’ down one
that pleasant smells could influence daydreaming. margin, using one column for each of the four required
features. Tick each feature (tick-a, tick-b, tick-c, tick-d)
10(a) Describe how Henri could conduct a laboratory 10
experiment to investigate the effect of pleasant smells when it appears, then underline the letter ( ) for detail.
on daydreaming.
Use L1, L2, L3, L4, L5 at the end of the response to indicate
Do not describe sample/sampling technique or ethical the level.
issues/guidelines in your answer.
Detail in brackets.
The four required features for this laboratory experiment are:
(a) independent variable: smells: Other appropriate responses should also be credited.
flowers/pleasant/unpleasant (any two, operationalised) Use the table below to mark candidate responses to this
(b) dependent variable: daydreaming (e.g. time, depth, question.
detail – test/self-report/observe) or recall (as per
Andrade)
(c) controls/standardisation; 2 aspects identified (e.g.
nature/intensity of smell, silence, boredom for
daydreaming)
(d) experimental design: any named (clear that different
participants in each, how allocated etc.)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 17 of 19
10(b)(i) Describe one practical/methodological strength of the 2 identification of generic strength = 1
procedure you have described in your answer to part detail = 1 (generic or linked).
(a).
Accept other practical/methodological strengths.
Do not refer to sampling or ethics in your answer.
Strengths may relate to:
Validity
• operationalisation
• situational/participant variables factors
• controls/standardisation
• design/counterbalancing.
Reliability
• inter-rater consistency
• intra-rater consistency.
10(b)(ii) Explain why the feature of the procedure you have 2 Both marks are for explaining the implications of the strength
identified in part (b)(i) is a strength. for the study.
Do not refer to sampling or ethics in your answer. Award 1 mark for an explanation.
Award 1 mark for detail.
Explanation may include possible effects on: Max. 1 mark if no link to planned study.
• participants’ responses/behaviour if the procedure had
been different
• the collection of results if the procedure had been
different
• the interpretation of results if the procedure had been
different.
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 19 of 19
Official mark scheme pages: 17, 19 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-mj-21-q01
May/June 2024 · Paper 21 · Question 1 · 3 marks
1(a) Identify the sampling technique used in the study by 1 Do not accept general description:
Milgram (obedience). ‘the Ps were selected / sampled by replying to an advert’ = 0
Volunteer sampling = 1 [definitive]
Self-selecting sampling = 1
1(b) Outline how the sample was obtained in this study. 2 Description of sampling = 1 (definitive: advert / direct mail)
advertisement; (description) Detail = 1 (can award this mark independently of the
description mark, but max 1)
in newspaper; (detail)
Accept: ‘white and blue collar workers’
in New Haven; (detail)
aged 20–50; (detail)
asking for men / a range of occupations; (detail)
by direct mail; (description / detail)
Payment / Incentive; (detail)
Asking for people for a study on memory / learning /
punishment; (detail)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 6 of 24
Official mark scheme pages: 6 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-mj-21-q02
May/June 2024 · Paper 21 · Question 2 · 2 marks
2 Explain what is meant by the ethical guideline of 2 explanation = 1
‘species’ in relation to animals in psychological detail = 1
research.
Just saying ‘Species should be protected from harm’ is NAQ
use the species that will suffer the least; (explanation)
e.g. sentient animals will suffer more; (detail)
use a species that will fulfil the aim of the research;
(explanation or detail)
e.g. one like us that was social / had colour vision / is clever;
(detail)
use mice as they suffer less than chimps; (detail)
Use species that are not endangered = 1 (max) (explanation
only)
Bred in captivity = 0 = NAQ [this is about the particular
individuals not the species]
Humanely treated = 0
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 7 of 24
Official mark scheme pages: 7 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-mj-21-q03
May/June 2024 · Paper 21 · Question 3 · 4 marks
3 Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreams) asked participants to record their dream narratives. The words in each narrative
were counted.
3(a) Identify the type of data provided by counting the words 2 type of data (quantitative) = 1 [definitive]
in the narratives. Justify your answer. justification = 1 (does not have to be linked)
Quantitative; Ignore discrete / categorical = 0 = incorrect
because it was the number of words/was numerical/ how Accept ordinal/interval/ratio
many…; (justification)
3(b) Explain one strength of collecting this type of data in 2 explanation = 1
this study. link = 1
can be analysed / compared; (explanation) factual / accurate = 0
can use statistics/graphs; (explanation) measurable = 0 needs ‘because’ or ‘than’
e.g. compare number of words in REM and nREM; (link)
objective / does not need interpretation / free of bias;
(explanation)
dream ‘detail’ less reliable to estimate; (link)
numerical is reliable; (explanation)
researchers are unlikely to make mistakes counting words;
(link)s
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 8 of 24
Official mark scheme pages: 8 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-mj-21-q04
May/June 2024 · Paper 21 · Question 4 · 6 marks
4 Glyn is conducting an experiment with an independent measures design. He is testing the effect of background noise on
social learning (learning by imitation). Glyn shows each participant how to build a tower from blocks. Each participant then
builds this tower, with either singing or silence in the background.
4(a) Explain what is meant by an ‘independent measures 2 Explanation = 1 Do NOT allow ‘different conditions’ HERE
design’, including an example from Glyn’s study. [could be repeated measures] must be participants /
people / groups’
Different participants / people / groups in each level of the Example = 1 [can use ‘different conditions’ here] [Do not
IV / condition; (explanation) award independently of 1st mark]
Because participants do not do both conditions;
(explanation) BOD Just saying ‘Not repeated measures’ = 0
i.e. either singing or silence (but not both); (example)
There are two conditions Silence and Singing; (example)
Participants perform in either kind of background / sound
condition / in singing or silence (but not both); (explanation +
example)
4(b) Explain what is meant by a ‘control condition’, including 2 Explanation = 1
an example from Glyn’s study.
Example = 1 [this mark can be awarded separately]
Level of the IV / condition in an experiment from which the
IV itself is absent; (explanation) Do not accept ‘placebo’ / ‘placebo condition’
Do not accept ‘to compare’ alone, this could just be two
The silence condition; (example) experimental conditions)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 9 of 24
4(c) Suggest how Glyn could measure social learning 2 Basic suggestion = 1 mark
(learning by imitation) in his study.
Detailed suggestion = 2 marks (must have link for 2 marks)
By observation = 1 (basic suggestion)
Being able to build the tower/ to imitate Glyn’s tower = 1 Note: a basic linked suggestion is not enough for 2 marks
(basic suggestion)
Whether the tower is the same as Glyn’s = 2 (detailed
suggestion)
Whether the tower falls down = 2 (detailed suggestion)
Timing them = 1 (basic suggestion)
Timing how long it takes to build the tower = 2 (detailed
suggestion)
Count the blocks used = 1 (basic suggestion)
How many blocks are accurate / the same as Glyn’s = 2
(detailed suggestion)
Sing (the same as Glyn) / how loud the singing is = 0
How well they imitated Glyn = 0 [REP] Needs to elaborate
on ‘how well’
‘accuracy’ in this context (of imitation) is fine – just not
elsewhere in place of terms like ‘valid’ or ‘reliable’.
Whether the tower is like Glyn’s = 1
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 10 of 24
Official mark scheme pages: 9, 10 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-mj-21-q05
May/June 2024 · Paper 21 · Question 5 · 8 marks
5 In the study by Pozzulo et al. (line-ups), children were interviewed.
5(a) Explain why it was necessary to gain consent from both 3 Explanation of informed consent = 1
the children and the children’s parents / guardians. Why from parents = 1
Why from children = 1
Consent is agreeing to participate; (explanation)
Having enough information to decide for their child;
(explanation / parent)
Parental consent as children may not understand;
(parent)
Children are not fully able to give informed consent /
children may not understand enough;
Child consent necessary as they have feelings too;
Allow any advantage of gaining consent applicable to adults
/ children
5(b) To test correct identification of the cartoon characters, 1 Explanation = 1 (Only need to identify similarity)
many ‘foils’ were needed that were similar to the target
cartoons. Accept ‘same size’
Explain one way in which the foils needed to be similar
to the targets. Do not accept ‘race’ / ‘ethnic group’ (Latino / Latina form a
pan-ethnicity)
Similarities from the paper:
facial structure
hair length (allow ‘style’)
hair colour
clothes
colours / black and white
Also:
sex (also accept ‘gender’)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 11 of 24
5(c) Fig. 5.1 shows some of the data from this study. Use 4 It is incorrect to put ‘%’ after each figure but ignore this.
this graph to produce a table of the data.
(age of participants)
You must write full headings on your table.
children adults
Fig. 5.1 Results from the study by Pozzulo et al. for the
correct identification of target individuals in a line-up.
Percent Cartoon 100 100
correct (female)
identification
(of female Human (female) 24 (22- 46 (44-
target in a line- 26) 48)
up)
Note: this table could be correctly drawn in several different
ways.
1 mark per correct point about table.
Accurate figures from graph (100, 100, 24 [22–26], 46 [44–
48]) = 1
Type of target (OWTTE) = 1
Cartoon female and human female = 1
Child and adult participants = 1
Percentage correct identification (of the individual in a line-
up) = 1 (just once)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 12 of 24
Official mark scheme pages: 11, 12 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-mj-21-q06
May/June 2024 · Paper 21 · Question 6 · 6 marks
6 Describe participant observation and non-participant 6 1 mark for each definition / point of detail, up to a max of 2
observation, using any example(s). for each term / concept.
1 mark for each example, max 2 for each term / concept.
In either P or NP observation Ps may or may not be aware Examples can include examples from any studies (core,
of being observed / it can be covert or overt; (detail– once) other, candidate’s own studies).
participant observation: Max 4 if no examples or if only about one term / concept.
researcher watches as part of the ongoing activity; Only 1 example needed to access 6 marks.
(definition)
appears to be like the participants in social role; (definition)
The participants can see the observer = 0 (This is overt obs)
Interaction can give greater insight into reasons for
behaviours observed; (detail)
Piliavin et al. the observers appeared to be passengers;
(core study example)
Note Piliavin et al.’s victims/models were NOT observing
(so not eg. of participant observer)
Note Milgram stooge/learner was not an observer (so not
eg. of participant observer)
If an observer joins in with children’s games to record their
behaviour; (own example)
Saavedra & Silverman: observed boy performing in vivo
button tasks; (core study)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 13 of 24
9990/21 Cambridge International AS & A Level – Mark Scheme May/June 2024
PUBLISHED
Question Answer Marks Guidance
6 non-participant observation:
observer not involved in situation being studied; (definition)
uses camera / one-way mirror / distanced from social
group; (definition)
(often inobtrusive) so fewer demand characteristics; (detail)
Observer is objective as not involved in emotions of the
social situation of Ps; (detail)
Bandura et al./Milgram used a one-way mirror; (definition
only)
Bandura et al. observed from another room; (definition
only)
Milgram, observed from where he couldn’t be seen;
(definition only)
Bandura et al. did a non-participant observation of children;
(example: core study) 1
Bandura et al. observed the children from another room;
(core study+detail) 2
Bandura et al. used a one-way mirror to observe the
children; (core study+detail) 2
Milgram, did a non-participant observation of Ps shocking
learners; (example: core) 1
Milgram, saw teachers shocking from where he couldn’t be
seen; (core st+detail) 2
Milgram, observations of obedience used one-way mirror;
(core study+detail) 2
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 14 of 24
6 The participants cannot see the observer = 0 (this is covert
observation)
Hassett – NP
Fagen – NP (because the researchers were not engaging in
an elephantine way)
Andrade – not an observation
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 15 of 24
Official mark scheme pages: 13, 14, 15 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-mj-21-q07
May/June 2024 · Paper 21 · Question 7 · 6 marks
7 Ranya is collecting data about study habits after school. She is asking students in her school two questions:
1 How long do you spend studying per week after school?
2 Which subject do you prefer to study after school: arts, languages, maths, or science?
7(a) Ranya will use two different measures of central 2 Explanation = 1 [x2]
tendency on her data, the mode and the mean.
Note: the mark is for the explanation. No mark for correct
Explain which measure of central tendency would be choice i.e. ‘mean’ / ’mode’
most appropriate for each of Ranya’s questions.
Q1: mean because the data is on a scale/continuous data;
(accept: interval/ratio data)
Q2: mode because it is categorical/discrete data; (accept
‘frequency data’)
Do not accept ‘qualitative’ for Q2 (mean)
Do not accept ‘words’ for Q2 (mode)
Do not accept ‘qualitative’/‘words’ for Q2 (mode)
Q1 To find the average number of hours they spend
studying a week = 0 = NAQ
Q2 To find the subject most of them prefer = 0 = NAQ
Q2 To find the frequency of the subject most of them prefer
= 1 = (indirect correct response)
7(b)(i) Explain how Ranya would calculate the range of hours 1 Explanation (with or without link) = 1
spent studying per week after school.
Accept answers whether or not they add 1.
Take smallest number (of hours study) from largest (number
of hours study) + 1; Find / compare the largest and smallest scores = 1
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 16 of 24
7(b)(ii) Ranya’s colleague says she should use the standard 2 Explanation = 1
deviation instead of the range for the data from
Question 1. Detail (generic or linked) = 1
Explain why the standard deviation would provide more Accept spread / differences from mean/variation/dispersion
information than the range. but not ‘deviation’ [REP]
The standard deviation shows the spread around the mean
(explanation); whereas the range only looks at the end
points; (detail: comparison) ORA
SD judges how far the scores are from the mean = 1
The SD indicates how much the results are clustered or
spread out (explanation); whereas the range just gives /
uses the extreme values; (detail: comparison) ORA
So the range gives less information because it only uses 2
scores / endpoints / outliers;
So the range can be misleading because it can be swung by
a single outliers;
The standard deviation shows the variation around the
mean (explanation);
Ranya would know how much variation there is in students’
study time; (linked detail)
The SD uses the whole data set / all the values
(explanation); whereas the range only uses the ends/only
uses two numbers; (detail: comparison) ORA
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 17 of 24
7(c) Ranya will use a non-directional (two-tailed) hypothesis 1 Answer Y, but mark is for explaining, i.e. because = 1
about study habits. (generic or linked)
Explain which hypothesis Rayna will use: All attempts to justify hypothesis X = 0
X. Students who prefer maths will spend more time
studying. Saying X does not indicate a direction = 0 = REP
Y. There will be a difference in the time spent
studying by students who prefer maths and Y because it says that there will be a difference (in time) = 0
students who do not prefer maths. (also applies to directional hypotheses)
Y because it only / simply / just says that there will be a
difference (in time); BOD
Y Does not say (a direction of – ignore) which group will
spend more time studying; BOD
Y because it does not say the which way the difference will
go;
Y because it says maths students will spend a different
amount of time than the other / non-maths / arts, language
and science students;
Y because it doesn’t say whether maths students will spend
more or less time than the other / non-maths / arts,
language and science students (a directional one would);
Y because it does not indicate how the IV will affect the DV,
only that it will.
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 18 of 24
Official mark scheme pages: 16, 17, 18 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-mj-21-q08
May/June 2024 · Paper 21 · Question 8 · 5 marks
8 Simon is conducting a study about children learning to read. He is comparing how well they understand a story when
reading from a book which has pages with images that are either:
coloured shapes
pictures that are not related to the text
pictures that are related to the text.
8(a) Identify the independent variable (IV) in Simon’s study. 1 Identification of IV = 1
Illustrations on the pages / the types of image / the three
conditions / pictures that are related or not related to the text
or coloured shapes;
8(b) Identify the dependent variable (DV) in Simon’s study. 1 Identification of DV = 1 [definitive]
(The children’s) understanding (of the story / the book);
The story / the book = 0
If a candidate operationalises the DV = 0 = NAQ [the Q asks
for identification from the stem]
8(c) All the pictures and shapes are brightly coloured. 3 Identification of ‘control’ = 1
Explain one reason why this is important. Explanation of why this is important = 1
Detail / effect on results = 1
It is a control (for the shapes); (identification)
So that cause and effect can be established / differences in Note: although the ‘identification’ mark is clear, the
the DV are due to the IV / are not due to extraneous ‘explanation’ and ‘detail’ marks are interchangeable.
variables; (generic detail)
e.g. for attention; (explanation) The response doesn’t have to be linked to the stem, but it is
which could be better for coloured illustrations than black- unlikely that it wouldn’t be for 3 marks.
and-white ones; (detail)
If the shapes were more brightly coloured than the
illustrations the children might be distracted; (detail)
So that differences in understanding are due to the pictures /
relevance not the colours; (effect)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 19 of 24
Official mark scheme pages: 19 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-mj-21-q09
May/June 2024 · Paper 21 · Question 9 · 6 marks
9 Heng is conducting a study to investigate the job satisfaction of male and female employees at a factory.
She has identified two problems with uncontrolled variables. One is a situational variable and the other is a participant
variable:
Variable X: female employees have more responsibilities at home
Variable Y: the factory promotes male employees faster than females.
9(a) Explain which one of these problems is a participant 1 Identification X should be correct, but NO mark for this
variable. 1 mark for explanation
Female employees have more responsibilities at home / because amount of responsibility at home is unique to
variable X women = 0
is a participant variable because responsibilities at home because amount of responsibility at home is unique to each
relate to each individual woman / internal factors / woman (as an individual) = 1
personal factors; (explanation)
because women have (more) responsibilities at home = 0 =
REP
9(b) Explain which one of these problems is a situational 1 Identification of Y should correct, but NO mark for this
variable. 1 mark for explanation
Faster promotion for male employees / variable Y is a Because men are promoted faster = 0 = REP
situational variable because this is external /
environmental / setting (because it depends on the Anything just about the ‘factory’ = 0
factory); (explanation)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 20 of 24
9(c)(i) Suggest how Heng could limit the problem of one of 2 No mark for identifying the problem (i.e. situational /
these uncontrolled variables. participant var)
(participant) Female responsibilities: 1 mark for suggestion (mitigation or elimination)
Limit the effect by pairing male and females with equal 1 mark for detail
family / home / parental responsibilities; (suggestion)
To be sure any difference is due to gender; (detail)
(situational) male promotion:
Remove all individuals seeking/receiving promotion from the
sample; (suggestion)
e.g. by giving out a questionnaire to find out who to exclude
(and removing them); (detail)
To be sure any difference is due to gender; (detail)
9(c)(ii) Trying to limit a problem in a study can create further 2 Suggestion of issue created = 1 (accept reasonable
issues. Suggest one issue that your answer to part (c)(i) arguments except cost and time)
could create for Heng. detail = 1
(participant) Female responsibilities:
lack of generalisability; (suggestion)
If males and females are paired, this ignores the majority of
females with extra responsibilities; (detail)
(situational) male promotion:
Validity may be reduced; (suggestion)
Because promotion may cause satisfaction; (detail)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 21 of 24
Official mark scheme pages: 20, 21 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-mj-21-q10
May/June 2024 · Paper 21 · Question 10 · 14 marks
10 Mary is conducting a case study on a boy diagnosed with an autistic spectrum disorder. He produces many detailed
doodles and Mary wants to learn about him and his doodling.
10(a) Describe how Mary could conduct a case study of 10 To mark Q10a, create four ‘imaginary columns’ down one
doodling in a boy diagnosed with an autistic spectrum margin, using one column for each of the four required
disorder. features. Tick each feature (tick-a, tick-b, tick-c, tick-d)
when it appears, then underline the letter ( ) for detail.
Do not describe sampling technique or ethical issues /
guidelines in your answer. Use L1, L2, L3, L4, L5 at the end of the response to indicate
the level.
The four required features for this case study are:
Use the table below to mark candidate responses to this
(a) details about the participant / unit (ASD / male, age, question.
how found, other info e.g. diagnosis, parents,
Level The response:
teachers, P background)
Level 5 has all the required features, all with
(b) content of information collected: (e.g. depth / detail:
9–10 marks detail, with mostly appropriate
e.g. types of doodles, frequency, e.g. associate with
terminology.
emotions / being with friends/being outdoors, examples
AND
of rating scales etc etc.)
clearly applies knowledge of
methodology involved in planning
(c) two or more techniques for data collection
this investigation.
(observation, interview him, interview, use rating scales
parents/teachers – at least two)
Level 4 has all the required features, but
7–8 marks only some of these with detail, with
(d) analysis / interpretation / triangulation: (description
some appropriate terminology.
of how data used: qualitative and/or quantitative;
AND
triangulation – making sure the sources agree to be
applies knowledge of methodology
confident in the conclusion. Note: this is not about
involved in planning this
reliability)
investigation.
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 22 of 24
10(a)
Level 3 has some of the required features
5–6 marks with detail / all of the required
features with no detail, and some
appropriate terminology.
AND
applies a basic knowledge of
methodology involved in planning
this investigation.
Level 2 has at least two of the required
3–4 marks features, with little appropriate
terminology.
AND
attempts to use knowledge of
methodology involved in planning
this investigation.
Level 1 has one of the required features and
1–2 marks uses little appropriate terminology.
AND
makes a limited attempt to use
knowledge of methodology involved
in planning this investigation, e.g.
may not use the method required by
the question.
0 marks No creditable response.
Other appropriate responses should also be credited.
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 23 of 24
10(b)(i) Explain how one feature of the procedure you described 2 Identification of helpful part for validity = 1
in part (a) helps to make the study valid.
explanation (generic or linked) = 1
Do not refer to sampling or ethics in your answer.
Part of procedure may relate to:
operationalisation
situational / participant variables factors
controls
design / counterbalancing
Accept other practical influences on validity.
10(b)(ii) Suggest one way to improve the reliability of the 2 Suggestion for improvement of reliability = 1 (linked to (b)(i))
procedure you described in part (a). Justify your Justification = 1 (linked or generic)
answer.
Do not refer to sampling or ethics in your answer.
Part of procedure may relate to:
standardisation
consistency within and between raters (reliability).
Accept other practical influences on reliability.
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 24 of 24
Official mark scheme pages: 22, 23, 24 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-mj-22-q01
May/June 2024 · Paper 22 · Question 1 · 7 marks
1(a)(i) State the two main features of a case study. 2 Longitudinal / over a long time = 0
Aim to give therapy = 0
Single unit / person is studied = 1 (definitive) Rare case = 0
In depth / detailed study = 1 (definitive). Lots of data = 0
Accept two points on one line
1(a)(ii) Explain why the study by Saavedra and Silverman 2 Why single unit = 1
(button phobia) was a case study, in relation to these Why in depth = 1
two main features.
Just one boy (and his mum) = 1 (single unit)
History of his phobia; (in depth)
Measurement of his phobia; (in depth)
Monitoring change in his phobia; (in depth)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 6 of 20
1(b) Explain one way to improve validity in a case study. 3 Way = 1
Detail = 2 (detail can include any example)
Triangulation / use several different sources of data; (way) to
confirm that each data source support the same findings /
interpretation; (detail)
e.g., using interviews, with them and family, questionnaires,
observations; (any two)
Use pre-validated measures; (way)
e.g., standardised tests of personality; (detail) this would
reduce researcher bias; (detail)
Use several different methods to get in depth data; (way)
e.g., use observations and interviews; (detail) as people
might do things you can see that they would not say in
interview; (detail)
Use both qualitative and quantitative data; (way) to balance
depth and being able to compare / analyse / measure;
(detail)
e.g., to get opinions about what something feels like and
measure it with a machine; (detail)
Maintain distance between the researcher and P; (way)
to ensure objectivity; (detail) because if they built a
relationship the researcher might become biased; (detail)
Use standardisation / operationalisation (of data collected);
(way) to ensure objectivity / avoid bias; (detail)
e.g., if observing have categories with definitions; (detail)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 7 of 20
Official mark scheme pages: 6, 7 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-mj-22-q02
May/June 2024 · Paper 22 · Question 2 · 4 marks
2 Kanav wanted to recruit participants from his town for his study. He put an advertisement into the window of every shop in
his town and used all the people who responded as his sample.
2(a)(i) Explain the sampling technique Kanav used. 2 Identification of sampling technique = 1
Explanation = 1
Volunteer / self-selecting = 1 (definitive)
Using people who choose to participate / respond to a
request /advertisement to participate = explanation.
The participants are those who were willing to take part =
explanation;
2(a)(ii) Suggest one weakness of using this sampling 2 Weakness = 1
technique in Kanav’s study. Link = 1
Low generalisability / poor representation (of variety in the
population); (weakness)
Sample will only include shoppers / ones who responded to
his advert; (link)
Could include people who are not ‘from his town’ (e.g.,
delivery people, visitors); (link).
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 8 of 20
Official mark scheme pages: 8 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-mj-22-q03
May/June 2024 · Paper 22 · Question 3 · 3 marks
3(a) A study has the hypothesis ‘Four-year-old children 1
make more language mistakes than eight-year-old
children.’ State whether this hypothesis is a:
directional hypothesis
non-directional hypothesis
null hypothesis
directional hypothesis (definitive)
3(b) Explain the reason for your choice in part (a). 2 Generic response = 1
Linked response = 2
It says which level of the IV will be better/higher; (generic)
It says which IV level, in this case older children, will be ‘Shows direction of results’ = 0 = REP
‘better’; (link)
As it states the causal effect of older age causing fewer
mistakes; (link)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 9 of 20
Official mark scheme pages: 9 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-mj-22-q04
May/June 2024 · Paper 22 · Question 4 · 4 marks
4 The study by Hassett et al. (monkey toy preferences) 4 Name of animal guideline = 1 2
used animals. Link to monkeys / Hassett = 1 2
Outline two named ethical guidelines in relation to the
use of animals in this study. Note: ‘Lots of space and controlled temperature’ = 0 = NAQ
as just description.
minimising harm / pain, suffering and distress / reward,
deprivation and aversive stimuli;
Not physically / psychologically hurting monkeys; monkeys
sense pain;
Replacement; use alternatives e.g., previous videos of
monkeys;
species; monkeys are clever so useful as human models;
numbers; use as few (monkeys) as possible;
(procedures) housing; Animals need enough space /
monkeys are big, move; they need to be kept with
conspecifics.
Question Answer Marks Guidance
Official mark scheme pages: 10 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-mj-22-q05
May/June 2024 · Paper 22 · Question 5 · 2 marks
5 In the study by Baron-Cohen et al. (eyes test), a control task was used to be certain that the AS / HFA participants could
use information from pictures of eyes to make simple judgements.
5(a) Identify this control task. 1 Accept judgement of male / female
Gender (recognition) = 1 (definitive)
5(b) Outline what participants were required to do in this 1 ‘To say whether they/ a person was male of female’ = 0
control task.
‘To say whether a (person in) a photograph was male of
To judge the gender/sex of each person in each female’ = 1
photograph / of the eyes = 1 (definitive)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 10 of 20
Official mark scheme pages: 10 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-mj-22-q06
May/June 2024 · Paper 22 · Question 6 · 6 marks
6 Describe how variables in correlations can be 6 1 mark per definition/point of detail, max 2 for each term /
measured, using any example(s). concept.
‘How’ may be interpreted as the technique, the 1 mark per example, max 2 for each term / concept.
measurement, or the operationalisation of the variable. Any
is acceptable. Examples can be any studies (core studies, other studies,
candidate’s own).
Interview / questionnaire: (closed Qs with ratings, numerical
scores assigned to Likert scales, open questions used to Max 4 if no examples or if only one term / concept.
generate continuous score);
Only 1 example needed to access 6 marks.
tests / tasks: generating numerical values; percentages;
totals; Note: Any point must relate to a continuous variable,
otherwise = 0 for that point.
observations: tallying of behavioural categories; durations.
Baron-Cohen: AQ / IQ / eyes test;
Dement & Kleitman: number of words in narrative and
dream duration / time in REM sleep;
Piliavin et al.: group size (number of individuals) and
frequency of helping;
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 11 of 20
Official mark scheme pages: 11 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-mj-22-q07
May/June 2024 · Paper 22 · Question 7 · 6 marks
7 Chyou is conducting a self-report about students’ subject choices.
Four of her questions are:
A Describe how much you like maths.
B How much do you enjoy studying science? 0 = do not enjoy it at all, 5 = enjoy it a lot.
C “I have always known what subjects I want to study.” To what extent do you agree with this statement? strongly agree/
agree/ neither agree nor disagree/ disagree/ strongly disagree.
D Write about whether you would like to be a doctor.
7(a) Identify one closed question from A to D. 1
1 mark for B or C (definitive)
7(b) Identify one open question from A to D. 1
1 mark for A or D (definitive)
7(c) Chyou has written two questions to investigate the process of students choosing their subjects.
E How old were you when you decided you did or did not like science?
F Describe how you felt when you made your final decision about subject choices.
7(c)(i) State one strength of question E. 1 Strength = 1 (generic or linked)
Question E quantitative data so can be used to compare Note: a term alone is not an explanation.
between participants / can be analysed statistically
7(c)(ii) State one strength of question F. 1 Strength = 1 (generic or linked)
Question F qualitative data so provides detail (of feelings) Note: a term alone is not an explanation.
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 12 of 20
7(d) Suggest two questions Chyou could ask to investigate 2 1 mark per question about factor affecting subject choices
factors affecting students’ subject choices. x2
1 Explain how members of your family / teacher / hobbies / Questions and be open, closed or one of each.
work experience affected your choice of subjects.
Closed questions must have choices. Open questions must
2 Do you think being an only child affected your subject generate genuine qualitative data (Describe, explain, tell
choices? me…).
Question Answer Marks Guidance
Official mark scheme pages: 12, 13 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-mj-22-q08
May/June 2024 · Paper 22 · Question 8 · 6 marks
8 Daku is observing the obedience of boys and girls to teachers and older pupils when they are waiting for their lunch. Fig.
8.1 is a graph of Daku’s results.
8(a) Daku’s conclusion is that girls are more obedient than 2 Reason why Daku is incorrect = 1
boys. Daku’s colleague, Jedda, has looked at Daku’s
graph and disagrees with Daku’s conclusion. Explain Detail = 1
one reason why Daku’s conclusion may be incorrect.
Do not refer to the sample size in your answer.
The difference is very small; (reason)
so it might not be significant / important / big enough to
matter / could be due to chance; (detail)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 13 of 20
8(b) Dr Jedda suggests that Daku needs a bigger sample. 2 Reason why = 1
Explain one benefit of increasing the sample size in this Detail = 1
study.
Because a small difference in a large sample is more
Better generalisability from a larger sample; (reason) reliable than a small difference in a small sample = (2)
Because it should contain a bigger variety of children with
different obedience levels; (detail) Improve reliability/replicability = 0
8(c) Daku has identified a problem caused by an uncontrolled variable. The boys had to wait longer for their lunch than the
girls.
8(c)(i) Explain whether this problem is caused by a situational 1 Explanation of situational variable = 1
variable or a participant variable.
Note: No mark for stating ‘situational variable’, the mark is
Situational because this was an external/environmental for the explanation.
factor affecting the likelihood of being disobedient.
Don’t accept reverse argument, i.e., ‘not participant’?
8(c)(ii) Explain how this problem would have affected Daku’s 1 Explanation = 1
results.
The boys would have been more likely to be disobedient
than the girls because they were provoked / irritated /
hungrier by being kept in a queue (whereas the girls did not
need to queue).
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 14 of 20
Official mark scheme pages: 13, 14 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-mj-22-q09
May/June 2024 · Paper 22 · Question 9 · 8 marks
9 Carol is investigating how music in a sports centre affects the amount that people exercise. On each visit she listens to the
music that is playing. She measures the music by counting the number of musical beats per minute (faster music has more
musical beats per minute than slower music).
9(a) Suggest one problem with Carol’s measure of the 2 Weakness = 1
music. detail = 1
Carol may not count / time accurately; (weakness)
so her analysis of the music may be unreliable; (detail)
Other aspects of music (than tempo) may matter;
(weakness)
e.g., major / minor key / lyrics / genre (detail)
9(b) Carol records the time each person in the sports centre 4 Reason = 1 (2)
starts and stops exercising. All of the sports centre Linked detail = 1 (2)
members have given permission for this to happen.
Explain two reasons why Carol obtained permission to
gather her data, in relation to the ethical guidelines.
Informed consent; (reason)
Sports centre-goers need to know about / agree to, having
their exercise watched; (linked detail)
Privacy; (reason)
(Carol is observing people and) they may not want to be
watched when exercising; (linked detail)
People may stop exercising early; (linked detail)
Psychological harm; (reason)
People may be embarrassed about being unfit; (linked
detail)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 15 of 20
9(c) Explain one reason why it is important that Carol visits 2 Reason = 1
the sports centre at different times of day. Linked detail = 1
e.g., morning people may be more fit; (reason)
So might exercise for longer regardless of musical tempo;
(linked detail)
The music tempo may vary over the day; (reason)
e.g., faster music in the evening so exercise would be more
active then; (linked detail)
type of people; (reason)
e.g., old people come in the morning and are less fit; (linked
detail)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 16 of 20
Official mark scheme pages: 15, 16 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-mj-22-q10
May/June 2024 · Paper 22 · Question 10 · 14 marks
10 Chloë is studying behaviour in the workplace. She wants to investigate how people behave during mealtimes at work. A
range of food is available to the workers, which can be eaten in different ways. The workers also vary in how sociable they
are during meals. Chloë intends to produce a detailed description of the variety of behaviours during meals at work.
10(a) Describe how Chloë could conduct an observational 10 To mark Q10(a), create four ‘imaginary columns’ down one
study using participant observation to record the variety margin, using one column for each of the four required
of behaviours during meals at work. features. Tick each feature (tick-a, tick-b, tick-c, tick-d)
when it appears, then underline the letter ( ) for detail.
Do not describe sample/sampling technique or ethical
issues/guidelines in your answer. Use L1, L2, L3, L4, L5 at the end of the response to indicate
the level.
The four required features for this participant observation
are: Use the table below to mark candidate responses to this
question.
(a) participant observation (outlined): (how the observer(s)
Level The response:
will be engaged in the social context of eating / servers in
the canteen)
Level 5 has all the required features, all with
9–10 marks detail, with mostly appropriate
(b) overt/covert: (explicit and separate from participant)
terminology.
AND
(c) naturalistic / controlled; (probably naturalistic – but
impacted by nature of food being served / time of day) clearly applies knowledge of
methodology involved in planning an
(d) structured (behavioural categories) / unstructured: investigation.
(probably structured – ‘foods they eat, how they eat them,
how social’ – but unstructured would allow for ‘detailed Level 4 has all the required features, but
description of variety’) 7–8 marks only some of these with detail, with
some appropriate terminology.
Other appropriate responses should also be credited. AND
applies knowledge of methodology
involved in planning an investigation.
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 17 of 20
10(a)
Level The response:
Level 3 has some of the required features
5–6 marks with detail / all of the required
features with no detail, and some
appropriate terminology.
AND
applies a basic knowledge of
methodology involved in planning an
investigation.
Level 2 has at least two of the required
3–4 marks features, with little appropriate
terminology.
AND
attempts to use knowledge of
methodology involved in planning an
investigation.
Level 1 has one of the required features and
1–2 marks uses little appropriate terminology.
AND
makes a limited attempt to use
knowledge of methodology involved
in planning an investigation, e.g.,
may not use the method required by
the question
0 marks No creditable response.
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 18 of 20
10(b)(i) Describe one practical / methodological strength of the 2 identification of generic strength = 1
procedure you have described in your answer to part detail = 1 (generic or linked).
(a). Do not refer to sampling or ethics in your answer.
Strengths may relate to:
Validity
operationalisation
situational / participant variables factors
controls / standardisation
Demand characteristics
Reliability
inter-rater consistency
intra-rater consistency.
Accept other practical / methodological strengths.
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 19 of 20
10(b)(ii) Describe one practical / methodological weakness of 2 identification of generic weakness = 1
the procedure you have described in your answer to detail = 1 (generic or linked).
part (a). Do not refer to sampling or ethics in your
answer.
Weaknesses may relate to:
Validity
operationalisation
situational / participant variables factors
controls / standardisation
Demand characteristics
Reliability
inter-rater consistency / two observers that were not
standardised
intra-rater consistency.
Accept other practical / methodological weaknesses.
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 20 of 20
Official mark scheme pages: 17, 18, 19, 20 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-mj-23-q01
May/June 2024 · Paper 23 · Question 1 · 2 marks
1 Explain what is meant by a covert observation, using 2 Explain covert = 1
any example. Example = 1 (generic or embedded, but not just a
reference)
participants unaware of (role of) observer; (define) Observer does not interact with participants = 0 [this is non-
out of view / far away / disguised / hidden; (example) participant obs]
Bandura used a one-way mirror; (example)
Hassett used a camera; (example)
Piliavin’s observers looked like subway passengers;
(example)
‘In Piliavin the Ps did not know the observers were there’ = 0
= REP
Question Answer Marks Guidance
Official mark scheme pages: 6 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-mj-23-q02
May/June 2024 · Paper 23 · Question 2 · 2 marks
2 The results from the study by Andrade (doodling) 2 Any descriptive point about the mean = 1
included the following data about the shading of shapes Any descriptive point about the range = 1
by participants in the doodling group: The mean/average doodling was in the bottom half of the
range; (mean)
Outline what these two results show about doodling by All participants in this group doodled; (range)
this group of participants. The variation in doodling was very wide; (range)
the mean number per participant was 36.3 Statements relating to the non-doodlers = 0 [NAQ]
the range was 3–110. Comparative statements to controls = 0 [NAQ]
Copying the numbers = 0 [REP]
Conclusions = 0 = NAQ
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 6 of 20
Official mark scheme pages: 6 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-mj-23-q03
May/June 2024 · Paper 23 · Question 3 · 2 marks
3 Describe how one feature of the study by Milgram 2 Link (feature of study) = 1
(obedience) helped to make the study valid. How it helped validity = 1
Shock machine looked real; / thought the shocks were Authority figure = 0
real; Authority figure looked real because of coat/of location = 1
Drawing lots was rigged;
Grey technician’s coat;
Location at a university;
Told it was about memory and punishment (deception);
So participants unlikely to suspect the deception / guess aim
/ respond to demand characteristics; (how)
the prods were the same for all Ps / standardised; (how)
E.g. all Ps heard ‘please continue’; (feature)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 7 of 20
Official mark scheme pages: 7 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-mj-23-q04
May/June 2024 · Paper 23 · Question 4 · 4 marks
4 One group of participants in the study by Hölzel et al. 4 Partial explanation = 1
(mindfulness and brain scans) was a sample of 16 right- Full explanation = 2
handed adults: 6 males and 10 females.
Credit answers with other knowledge of the study eg. ages,
Explain two reasons why this sample may not be ethnicity
representative.
Gender bias / more females than males;
So not / less representative of males;
All righthanded;
So not / less representative of lefthanders;
All adults;
So not / less representative of children;
Small sample;
So not much variability;
So not generalisable to ambidextrous people / wide variety
of…; (must be specific)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 8 of 20
Official mark scheme pages: 8 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-mj-23-q05
May/June 2024 · Paper 23 · Question 5 · 4 marks
5 Memory research is often conducted using
eyewitnesses who have witnessed a real crime.
Alternatively, researchers can use a simulated crime in a
laboratory and ask participants what they remember.
5(a) One strength of using a simulated crime in a laboratory 2 Outline = 1
is that it can improve objectivity. example must relate to objectivity= 1
Outline what is meant by the term ‘objectivity’, using an an eyewitness seeing a thief stealing something = 0 [NAQ
example about eyewitnesses. not about objectivity]
judgment from external perspective; (outline) If an effective answer is given relating to Pozzulo, credit it.
independent viewpoint; (outline)
data obtained without personal bias; (outline)
researchers might be biased by emotions/suffering of real
eyewitnesses; (example)
in artificial situations, researcher knows the correct memories
of the scene; (e.g.)
5(b) Describe how one feature of the study by Pozzulo et al. 2 Objectivity strategy = 1
(line-ups) helped to make the study objective. How it helped = 1
responses to line-ups limited to present or not; (strategy) silhouettes (as a ‘target absent’ choice); (strategy)
so no ‘maybe’ or ‘more likely to be x than y’; (how it helped) making the choice an objective one between present/absent
participants’ responses were quantitative (present or not); rather than a difficult choice of present /not present; (how it
strategy) helped)
so the researchers did not have to interpret the results; (how
it helped)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 9 of 20
Official mark scheme pages: 9 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-mj-23-q06
May/June 2024 · Paper 23 · Question 6 · 6 marks
6 Describe the following experimental designs, using any 6 1 mark per definition/point of detail, max 2 for each
example(s): term/concept.
matched pairs design 1 mark per example, max 2 for each term/concept.
repeated measures design. Examples can be any studies (core studies, other studies,
candidate’s own).
Repeated measures: Max 4 if no e.g.s or if only one term/concept.
Same Ps in each level of IV / condition; Only 1 example needed to access 6 marks.
Risk of order effects / practice or fatigue effects;
As Ps see experimental situation more than once;
Also risk of recognising demand characteristics;
Order effects resolved by counterbalancing;
Where half Ps do conditions in order AB, others BA;
eg Dement & Kleitman 5/15 minutes;
Hölzel pre/post mindfulness course;
Perry personal space situations (CIDs) Ps did all of the
different approaching objects (ball, stranger, friend, authority
figure);
Perry different room configurations (of table/chair/plant);
Matched pairs:
Different Ps in each level of the IV;
similar individuals allocated one to each level of IV;
eg one twin in each group;
reducing effects of individual differences;
similarities relevant to study;
e.g. age / IQ / gender;
e.g. similar to Bandura aggression levels of children;
Ps matched into pairs = 0 [REP]design.
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 10 of 20
Official mark scheme pages: 10 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-mj-23-q07
May/June 2024 · Paper 23 · Question 7 · 5 marks
7 Yashal is planning an experiment about the effect music
has on students doing their homework. She is choosing
the conditions she will use.
7(a) Outline what is meant by the term ‘experimental 1 Outline = 1
condition’.
levels of an independent variable that are actively
manipulated;
two (or more) situations/groups/conditions that compare
levels of an independent variable;
7(b)(i) Outline what is meant by the term ‘control condition’. 1 Outline = 1
situation/group/condition from which the IV is absent; Accept ‘no change to the IV’
Accept ‘a level of the IV where the IV is absent’ Accept: A condition where the IV is absent
Do not accept ‘baseline’ / ‘to compare’ alone
7(b)(ii) Suggest a control condition that Yashal could use in her 1 Example = 1
experiment.
e.g. a no music / no noise / silence group;
e.g. white noise;
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 11 of 20
7(c) Yashal is planning to use students working at home as 2 Type of experiment = 1 Field [definitive]
participants. Explanation (linked) = 1 (may be ‘why it is’ or ‘why it has to
be’)
Explain the type of experiment Yashal would be
conducting.
The students are at home; (explanation)
It’s homework so they won’t be in the controlled situation of
school; (explanation)
The participants are in their normal setting for the activity of
homework;
The participants are in their normal/natural setting = 0 (not
linked)
Question Answer Marks Guidance
Official mark scheme pages: 11, 12 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-mj-23-q08
May/June 2024 · Paper 23 · Question 8 · 13 marks
8 A parrot rescue centre has some new parrots which
need to learn to enter a cage. Their trainer is planning a
procedure using operant conditioning to teach the
parrots to enter the cage.
8(a) Suggest one way that the parrots could be taught to 3 Way = 1 [can be interpreted in different ways]
enter the cage. Detail = 2
Response must be linked to task for 3 marks
Positive reinforcement; (way) Punish parrots; (way)
Give a reward each time they go into the cage; (detail+link) If they go a different direction; (detail)
Eg food; (detail) E.g. have shock wires under their feet either side of the
route to the cage; (link)
Using food; (way)
To shape behaviour; (detail)
Punish parrots; (way)
For getting closer to the cage; (detail+link)
If they go a different direction; (detail)
operant conditioning = 0 [REP] E.g. have shock wires under their feet either side of the
route to the cage; (link)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 12 of 20
8(b) The success of the procedure can be measured by
counting the number of days it takes each parrot to learn
to enter the cage.
8(b)(i) Suggest two practical problems with this measurement 4 Limitation = 1} [2]
of success. Either limitation or detail must be linked for 2 marks
1: …. Detail = 1}
2: …. Individual differences between parrots = 0 = NAQ
Learning in 1 minute, 1 hour or 1 day would all look the
same; (linked limitation)
So the data would be invalid (loss of discriminatory power);
(detail)
Parrots may all learn on first day; (linked limitation)
so ceiling effect; (detail)
some parrots may go in then straight out; (linked limitation)
so not a useful measure for aim; (detail)
parrots may focus for various lengths of time; (linked
limitation)
so not all parrots have same amount of training time; (linked
detail)
ethical limitations = 0 [NAQ]
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 13 of 20
8(b)(ii) For one of the problems you suggested in part (b)(i): 2 Way = 1
Detail = 1
Suggest one way this problem could be solved. The prompt (Problem: 1 or 2) should be used. If not clear,
credit if possible
1 min = 1 day / Ceiling effect:
Make interval shorter / avoids a ceiling effect / easier to
distinguish between learning speed / bigger range of scores
is possible; (way)
eg count hours; (detail)
straight out again:
add time limit to ‘enter cage’; (way)
e.g. and ‘stay inside for 30 seconds’; (detail)
parrot focus:
only train in short bouts; (way)
or stop when parrot isn’t focussing; (detail)
8(c) There are many members of staff at the rescue centre.
The trainer cannot decide whether the parrots will learn
better if the other staff are present or absent while the
parrots are being trained.
8(c)(i) Explain one reason why the parrots may learn better if 2 Explanation for staff presence = 1
the other staff are present during the parrots’ training. Detail = 1
Better if present, if familiar with people; (exp)
They may be less afraid (by people); (detail)
Better if present, people may make them feel secure; (exp)
So they pay attention more / are motivated more; (detail)
Better if present, as people motivate them; (exp)
eg audience effect/social facilitation/showing off; (detail)
social desirability / demand characteristics = 0
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 14 of 20
8(c)(ii) Explain one reason why the parrots may learn better if 2 Explanation for staff absence = 1
the other staff are absent during the parrots’ training. Detail = 1
Better if absent, parrots need to focus to learn; (exp)
Staff might distract them; (detail)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 15 of 20
Official mark scheme pages: 12, 13, 14, 15 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-mj-23-q09
May/June 2024 · Paper 23 · Question 9 · 8 marks
9 Faiza is planning to investigate the effect of air pollution
on emotion.
She had planned to conduct a laboratory experiment,
but rejected this for ethical reasons
9(a) Suggest one reason why conducting a laboratory 2 Reason = 1 (can be basic and generic, eg. named
experiment for Faiza’s investigation could have been guideline)
unethical. Linked detail = 1
(risk of) physical harm / (poor) protection of participants;
(reason)
Pollution is dangerous; (linked detail)
(hard to give) informed consent; (reason)
Cannot know in advance of risk damage; (linked detail)
9(b) Faiza decides to use geography students as 2 Linked reason = 1
participants. They are visiting a rural environment and a Detail = 1
polluted city as part of their geography course. She will
collect data in both places.
Explain one reason why Faiza’s new plan is more
ethical.
Students exposed to pollution anyway; (linked reason)
So no more risk of harm than in normal life; (detail)
Rather than deliberately / on purpose / in a lab; (detail)
Consent is only to participate in study; (detail)
So can be fully informed because Faiza’s not causing
exposure; (linked reason)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 16 of 20
9(c) Faiza is concerned about uncontrolled variables in her 4 uncontrolled variable linked to mood = 1 } x2
study. detail (why hard to control / mood affected) = 1 }
Suggest how two uncontrolled variables could affect the e.g. people might be happier in cities regardless of pollution;
measurement of emotion.
noise in city; (uncontrolled variable)
noise can give you a stress headache; (detail)
city light pollution; (uncontrolled variable)
reduced sleep because of street lighting; (detail)
busy city with lots to do; (uncontrolled variable)
students go to bed late so exhausted; (detail)
time of day (because course may be fixed eg. city in the
morning); (uncontrolled variable)
Question Answer Marks Guidance
Official mark scheme pages: 16, 17 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-mj-23-q10
May/June 2024 · Paper 23 · Question 10 · 14 marks
10 Bhaavik is interested in the relationship between
shyness and happiness. He says to his friend Jim that
the shy people he knows are really happy, but Jim says
he knows lots of happy people who are not shy.
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 17 of 20
10(a) Describe how Bhaavik could conduct a correlational 10 Use the table opposite to mark candidate responses to this
study to investigate the relationship between shyness question.
and happiness.
To mark Q10(a), create four ‘imaginary columns’ down one
Do not describe sample/sampling technique or ethical margin, using one column for each of the four required
issues/guidelines in your answer. features. Tick each feature (tick-a, tick-b, tick-c, tick-d)
when it appears, then underline the letter( ) for detail.
The four required features for this correlation are:
Use L1, L2, L3, L4, L5 at the end of the response to indicate
(a) two co-variables (shyness defined & happiness the level.
defined).
(b) measure of variable 1 (shyness – how measured) Use the table below to mark candidate responses to this
(c) measure of variable 2 (happiness – how measured) question.
(d) relationship (scatter graph, pos/neg, st/wk)
Level The response:
Note: Both variables must be at least ordinal scales for L3
Level has all the required features, all with detail,
5 with mostly appropriate terminology.
9–10 AND
marks clearly applies knowledge of methodology
involved in planning this investigation.
[must be continuous data for both
variables]
Level has all the required features, but only
4 some of these with detail, with some
7–8 appropriate terminology.
marks AND
applies knowledge of methodology
involved in planning this investigation.
[must be continuous data for both
variables]
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 18 of 20
10(a)
Level The response:
Level has some of the required features with
3 detail / all of the required features with no
5–6 detail, and some appropriate terminology.
marks AND
applies a basic knowledge of methodology
involved in planning this investigation.
[must be continuous data for both
variables]
Level has at least two of the required features,
2 with little appropriate terminology.
3–4 AND
marks attempts to use knowledge of methodology
involved in planning this investigation.
[max if clearly an experimental method]
Level has one of the required features and uses
1 little appropriate terminology.
1–2 AND
marks makes a limited attempt to use knowledge
of methodology involved in planning this
investigation, e.g. may not use the method
required by the question.
0 No creditable response.
marks
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 19 of 20
10(b)(i) Describe one practical/methodological strength of the 2 identification of generic strength = 1
procedure you have described in your answer to part (a). detail = 1 (generic or linked).
Do not refer to sampling or ethics in your answer.
Strengths of experiments are incorrect
Strengths may relate to: Strengths of ways shyness/happiness was measured in an
Validity experiment are acceptable
operationalisation
situational / participant variables
controls / standardisation
Demand characteristics
Reliability
inter-rater consistency
intra-rater consistency.
Accept other practical/methodological strengths.
10(b)(ii) Describe one practical/methodological weakness of the 2 identification of generic weakness = 1
procedure you have described in your answer to part (a). detail = 1 (generic or linked).
Do not refer to sampling or ethics in your answer.
Weakness of experiments are incorrect
Weaknesses may relate to: Weakness of ways shyness/happiness was measured in an
validity experiment are acceptable
operationalisation
situational / participant variables
controls / standardisation
demand characteristics
reliability
inter-rater consistency
intra-rater consistency.
Accept other practical/methodological weaknesses.
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 20 of 20
Official mark scheme pages: 17, 18, 19, 20 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-on-21-q01
Oct/Nov 2024 · Paper 21 · Question 1 · 2 marks
1 Explain what is meant by a ‘matched pairs design’, including any example. 2
Explanation = 1
Example (to illustrate not explain) = 1
Participants are matched/paired on key variables/characteristics with one placed in experimental and control conditions;
(explanation)
Allocating (pairs of) individuals who are similar characteristic (in important ways for a (named) study / levels of IV (in a
made-up situation); (example)
e.g. same aggression level children allocated to different model conditions in an aggression study; (example).
e.g. if twins with a boy and a girl were divided into separate groups to test gender differences in attention; (example).
e.g. in Baron-Cohen they were matched on age/IQ (in the autism and no autism conditions);
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 7 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-on-21-q02
Oct/Nov 2024 · Paper 21 · Question 2 · 2 marks
2 A longitudinal experiment is testing the hypothesis ‘Elephants will learn better as they grow older’. 2
Identify the type of hypothesis in this experiment. Justify your answer.
Type of hypothesis = 1
Justification = 1
Alternative hypothesis; (type)
As it says there will be a difference (over time / with age); (justification)
As it says it will change (rather than being due to chance / no change); (generic justification)
Directional /one-tailed hypothesis; (type)
As it says the elephants’ learning will get better not worse / rather than just changing; (justification)
Note: Stating what it is not = 0 marks for ‘because if it was non-directional it would just say there was a difference
between the levels of the IV’.
Note: anything correlational = 0.
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 7 of 24
Official mark scheme pages: 7 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-on-21-q03
Oct/Nov 2024 · Paper 21 · Question 3 · 3 marks
3 For the study by Baron-Cohen et al., a revised version of the ‘eyes test’ was developed. However, some problems
with ecological validity remained.
3(a) Define what is meant by the term ‘ecological validity’. 1
Whether results from one situation/study generalise to another situation = 1;
ACCEPT: Whether a study represents the real world;
Measure of everyday life of the study;
Whether the situation is natural (to the participants / for the activity) = 0
‘The realism of the study’ = 0 [NBOD]
3(b)(i) Outline one problem with the ecological validity of the revised eyes test. 1
Outline = 1
Eyes are not stationary (in everyday life);
We can look at eyes for as long as we need to;
Only shows the eyes;
We can normally see a whole face/body;
We can use body language not just their eyes;
Generic e.g. ‘not natural’ = 0
Sampling = 0
Environment (lab) = 0 [NAQ]
3(b)(ii) Explain one way in which the problem you identified in part (b)(i) could be solved. 1
Way to solve problem linked to bi = 1
Use a video of moving eyes;
Allow unrestricted viewing time;
Use photos of whole face/body;
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 8 of 24
Official mark scheme pages: 8 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-on-21-q04
Oct/Nov 2024 · Paper 21 · Question 4 · 7 marks
4 The study by Hassett et al. (monkey toy preferences) was an experiment.
4(a) Describe what is meant by an ‘experiment’. 2
Any two of three definitive points:
(Manipulated) IV and (measured) DV = 1 (need both IV and DV for the mark).
Control of variables = 1.
To investigate causal effects = 1.
Formulation of Hypotheses or examples. = 0
4(b) State one independent variable from this study. 1
Any IV = 1
Sex (gender);
Males and females;
Type of toy;
Plush and wheeled toys;
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 9 of 24
4(c) Describe two strengths of experiments as a research method. 4
Strength = 1 [2]
Detail = 1 [2]
In a two-mark answer one mark can be for a term but cannot award for a term alone (so just saying ‘its reliable’ on its own
is not enough for a mark)
Because the IV is manipulated it must be causing changes in the DV; (strength)
So differences/changes must be causal; (detail)
Because there are good controls only the IV can affect the DV; (strength)
This increases the validity of the results; (detail) Also accept increases reliability
Participants’ experiences are standardised; (strength)
So good reliability / easy to replicate; (detail)
Measurement of the DV is standardised / operationalised; (strength)
So good reliability / reduces need for interpretation / easy to replicate; (detail)
Can lead to quantitative data/ scientific measurement which is objective; (strength)
So comparisons between conditions is possible; (detail)
Use of counterbalancing (as a type of control / across conditions / ABBA); (strength)
to reduce order effects; (detail)
Note: ‘controlled’ is a description, so 0 [NAQ]
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 10 of 24
Official mark scheme pages: 9, 10 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-on-21-q05
Oct/Nov 2024 · Paper 21 · Question 5 · 6 marks
5 Describe inter-rater reliability and inter-observer reliability, using any example(s). 6
1 mark for each definition/point of detail, up to a maximum of 2 for each term/concept.
1 mark for each example, max 2 for each term/concept.
Examples can include examples from any studies (core studies, other studies, candidate’s own studies).
Max 4 if no examples or if only about one term/concept. Only 1 example needed to access 6
Examples can include ones from studies using such measures of reliability,
Inter-rater reliability:
• is a measure of whether different researchers are scoring consistently; (definition)
• e.g. test/questionnaire/interview responses;
• if data from an interview was interpreted in the same way; (example)
Inter-observer reliability:
• is a measure of whether different researchers are producing the same records when they see the same behaviours;
(definition)
• e.g. of (behavioural) categories / in a structured observation; (detail)
For Either (credited only once) No mark for generic definition
• indicates whether two researchers are rating responses in the same way: (detail – ONLY ONCE)
• if they are (reliable), ratings for the same data by two (different) researchers should (positively) correlate; (detail –
ONLY ONCE)
e.g., if the elephants in Fagan et al. performed the same behaviours, two observers should produce identical records:
(example)
e.g., Bandura et al. checked that the scoring of aggressive ratings was similar when done by different researchers;
(example)
e.g., Hassett et al. ensured that all observers used the same (operational) definitions of the play behaviours; (example)
e.g. Piliavin et al. both observers recorded the comments so could check they has recorded the same thins; (example)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 11 of 24
Official mark scheme pages: 11 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-on-21-q06
Oct/Nov 2024 · Paper 21 · Question 6 · 10 marks
6 Dr Eynon is a university lecturer studying personality. She tested the personality of some of her students and
divided them into two groups, personality ‘R’ and personality ‘S’. Dr Eynon then showed them photographs of
pleasant scenes, such as a beach. Half of the scenes contained people and half did not contain people. They
scored each photograph to show how much they liked it.
6(a)(i) Suggest one pleasant scene that Dr Eynon could use for one of her photographs, other than a beach. 1
Pleasant scene named or described = 1
river / forest / sea/ park;
people resting / sleeping;
The Arctic;
animals playing / swimming;
6(a)(ii) Dr Eynon needs to control many features about the scenes to ensure that they are similar, in addition to 2
manipulating whether they contain people or not.
Suggest two features that Dr Eynon should control about the scenes.
Feature to control = 1 [2]
Number of other features in scene;
How colourful it is;
The weather in the scene;
Time of day;
The mood of the people in the pictures;
Note: Number of people alone = 0
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 12 of 24
6(a)(iii) Explain why one of the features you have suggested in part (a)(ii) would be important in Dr Eynon’s study. 2
Feature: 1 or 2 …..
explanation for importance (can be generic) = 1
detail = 1
Ps may prefer more features/colours; (explanation)
E.g. if they are more interesting; (detail)
Individual differences in weather preferences affect choices; (explanation)
E.g. dislike of rain might obscure personality effects; (detail)
6(b) Participants were shown the photographs a random order. Dr Eynon calculated a total liking score for each of the
two types of scene.
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 13 of 24
6(b)(i) Table 6.1 shows the total scores for the two types of scene, for each group of participants. 3
Draw a graph showing only the results for ‘photographs with people’ from Table 6.1. You must label the axes.
Total score for photographs:
with people with no people
Personality 45 15
R
Personality 18 25
S
Table 6.1
For full marks must have separate bars
x-axis label: ‘Personality (type)’;
x-axis units: R / S;
y-axis label: Total score of (pleasant) scenes with people;
y-axis units: numbers up to 45;
bar heights correct; (accept 43–47; 16–20)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 14 of 24
6(b)(ii) Describe the conclusion that can be made from the data in Table 6.1. 2
Any conclusion = 1
Complete conclusion = 2
Type R personalities like peaceful scenes with people in more than ones without people whereas Type S personalities like
scenes without people more than those with; = 2
Type R personalities prefer (peaceful) photographs/scenes with more people in whilst Type P personalities prefer
(peaceful) photographs/scenes without people in them; = 2
Type S personalities are more variable in terms of their scene preferences than type R personalities who mostly prefer
scenes without any people in; = 2
Personality affects the type of scene people like; = 1
Note: just restating results = 0 [NAQ]
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 15 of 24
Official mark scheme pages: 12, 13, 14, 15 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-on-21-q07
Oct/Nov 2024 · Paper 21 · Question 7 · 10 marks
7 Mr Grainger trains each of his farm animals to enter a stable. He lets the animal approach the stable, then rewards
it with food. Each time the animal gets closer to the stable than before, he rewards it with food. When the animal
enters the stable, he rewards it again. He repeats this each day until the animal enters the stable without rewards.
7(a)(i) Suggest one way that Mr Grainger can measure the success of this training. 2
Way = 1
Detail = 1
Time how long the animal takes to train; (suggestion)
From start to end of each session (adding all sessions together); (detail)
Counting number of rewards used; (suggestion)
The number of food items (and number of times released back with other animals); (detail)
Number of days; (suggestion)
To enter without rewards; (detail)
Note: Must measure success of training, so score 0 if qualitative.
7(a)(ii) For the measure of success you suggested in part (a)(i): 2
Identify the type of data produced by the measure of success. Justify your answer.
Identification of type of data = 1
Justification = 1
Quantitative; (type)
Because each score is numerical; (justify)
Note: If qualitative given in 7(a)(i), max 1 [i.e. TE if 7ai is incorrect, but just for first mark]
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 16 of 24
7(a)(iii) For the measure of success you suggested in part (a)(i): 2
Explain one weakness of the type of data produced by this measure of success.
Weakness = 1
Detail = 1 (generic or linked)
Numbers don’t give in depth information; (weakness)
So [from the time] he wouldn’t know the number of reinforcements given; (linked detail)
So [from the number of rewards] he wouldn’t know how long it took to learn; (linked detail)
e.g. details about why; (generic detail)
Note: If qualitative, max 1 [i.e. TE as above]
7(b) On some days the training sessions are more successful than on other days. This difference may be caused by
situational variables.
7(b)(i) Suggest two situational variables that could have affected the success of training. 2
1. ……………..
2. ……………..
Situational variable = 1 [2]
There was a distraction (noise/too many people);
it was raining when one of the animals was being trained;
It was colder on one day;
Mr Grainger’s mood;
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 17 of 24
7(b)(ii) For one of the situational variables you suggested in part (b)(i): 2
Explain why this situational variable may have caused differences in the success of training of the animals.
Situational variable: 1 or 2 …..
Explanation = 1
detail = 1
distraction:
the animals would have been less likely to eat (because they were distracted); (explanation)
so would have been rewarded less; (detail)
weather;
If it was colder/raining, then the animals would want to go inside; (explanation)
so would need less rewards/take shorter amount of time; (detail)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 18 of 24
Official mark scheme pages: 16, 17, 18 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-on-21-q08
Oct/Nov 2024 · Paper 21 · Question 8 · 6 marks
8 Chen is conducting a study that is similar to the study by Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans). She has asked a
young person and an old person to act as ‘victims’. Each victim will appear to have difficulty climbing the step on
to a bus. Chen will count how many old passengers and how many young passengers help each victim to climb
the step.
8(a) Suggest two ways in which Chen’s study is similar to the study by Piliavin et al. 2
Similarity = 1 [2]
About helping;
Use of stooges to deceive (young/old, drunk/ill);
(Two types of) victims;
Participants are passengers;
Both public transport systems (mass transit);
Participants do not know they are in a study / cannot consent / cannot withdraw;
Note: purely generic responses that can apply to any study = 0 i.e. both field experiments/observation.
8(b) Suggest two ways in which Chen’s study is different from the study by Piliavin et al. 2
Explicit difference = 1 [2] (must include comparison)
Bus not subway;
Age is being compared rather than race/gender/drunk or ill;
Victim struggles to get on bus instead of falling / ‘help’ defined as helping up instead of aiding on floor;
Piliavin et al. used a model whereas Chen did not;
Piliavin et al. used two observers Chen only herself;
Piliavin et al. collected comments/qualitative data but Chen counted/had quantitative;
Piliavin old study, Chen now.
Two IVs in Piliavin, only 1 in Chen’s study
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 19 of 24
8(c) Explain the sampling technique Chen is using. 2
Sampling technique identified = 1 [opportunity]
Link = 1 [Do not give in isolation]
Opportunity sampling; (identification)
Because they will be on the bus anyway; (link)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 20 of 24
Official mark scheme pages: 19, 20 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-on-21-q09
Oct/Nov 2024 · Paper 21 · Question 9 · 14 marks
9 Tanya is investigating prosocial behaviour (this is positive, friendly behaviour between individuals). She is
studying prosocial behaviours in children at her local school and will give a questionnaire to every teacher in the
school.
9(a) Describe how Tanya could conduct a study using a questionnaire for teachers to investigate a variety of prosocial 10
behaviours in children.
Do not describe sample/sampling technique or ethical issues/guidelines in your answer.
Use the table below to mark candidate responses to this question.
The four required features for this questionnaire are:
(a) question format (open / closed questions/explicit and correct examples, fillers)
(b) examples of questions (at least two different prosocial not in Q, e.g. sharing, playing games together)
(c) question scoring / interpretation (e.g. use of numerical scoring / measures of central tendency / analysis e.g.
Measures of Central Tendency, MoS / interpretation of qualitative data)
(d) technique (paper & pencil / online)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 21 of 24
9(a) Other appropriate responses should also be credited.
Level The response:
Level 5 • has all the required features, all with detail, with mostly appropriate terminology.
9–10 AND
marks • clearly applies knowledge of methodology involved in planning an investigation.
Level 4 • has all the required features, but only some of these with detail, with some appropriate terminology.
7–8 marks AND
• applies knowledge of methodology involved in planning an investigation.
Level 3 • has some of the required features with detail / all of the required features with no detail, and some
5–6 marks appropriate terminology.
AND
• applies a basic knowledge of methodology involved in planning an investigation.
Level 2 • has at least two of the required features, with little appropriate terminology.
3–4 marks AND
• attempts to use knowledge of methodology involved in planning an investigation.
Level 1 • has one of the required features and uses little appropriate terminology.
1–2 marks AND
• makes a limited attempt to use knowledge of methodology involved in planning an investigation, e.g.
may not use the method required by the question.
0 marks No creditable response.
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 22 of 24
9(b)(i) Describe one practical/methodological strength of the procedure you have described in your answer to part (a). 2
Do not refer to sampling or ethics in your answer.
identification of generic strength = 1
detail = 1 (generic or linked). [term alone does not get credit, but can be ‘detail’]
Strengths may relate to:
Validity
• operationalisation
• situational / participant variables factors
• controls / standardisation
• design / counterbalancing.
Reliability
• type of question/data.
• inter-rater consistency
• intra-rater consistency.
Accept other practical/methodological strengths.
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 23 of 24
9(b)(ii) Describe one practical/methodological weakness of the procedure you have described in your answer to part (a). 2
Do not refer to sampling or ethics in your answer.
identification of generic weakness = 1
detail = 1 (generic or linked). [term alone does not get credit, but can be ‘detail’]
Weaknesses may relate to:
Validity
• operationalisation
• situational / participant variables factors
• controls / standardisation
• design / counterbalancing.
• Lack of depth
Reliability
• inter-rater consistency
• intra-rater consistency.
Accept other practical/methodological weaknesses.
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 24 of 24
Official mark scheme pages: 21, 22, 23, 24 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-on-22-q01
Oct/Nov 2024 · Paper 22 · Question 1 · 2 marks
1 In the study by Milgram the variable of ‘obedience’ was measured. 2
Describe the measure of obedience used.
Identification = 1
Detail = 1
Shock level / voltage (on the shock generator); (identification)
how high/far they went (on the scale) / maximum (voltage) reached / 450 V was fully obedient/higher the shock the greater
the obedience; (detail)
Obedience was measured using the number of volts on a shock generator = 1
Obedience was measured by seeing how high/maximum participants would go when shocking the learner = 2
Obedience was measured by seeing whether participants would go up to 450 volts when asked to shock learners = 2
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 7 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-on-22-q02
Oct/Nov 2024 · Paper 22 · Question 2 · 4 marks
2(a) Explain one similarity and one difference between a positive correlation and a negative correlation. 2
similarity = 1
difference = 1
similarity – both are relationships/links between two (measured) variables.
difference – the relationship goes in different directions / in a positive correlation both variables increase together, in a
negative correlation one variable increases as the other decreases.
‘Both cannot prove causality’ as a similarity =1
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 7 of 20
2(b) Describe one example of a correlation from the study by Hassett et al. (monkey toy preferences). 2
example = 1 (e.g. ‘Hassett, positive correlation’)
detail = 1
• Positive correlation (1) between rank and total frequency with plush/wheeled toys for both sexes combined (1)
• Positive correlation (1) between rank and total frequency with plush/wheeled toys for females (1)
• Positive correlation (1) between rank and duration of interactions with plush toys (NOT wheeled toys) in females (1)
• No correlation (1) between rank and total frequency/duration with plush/wheeled toys for males (1)
GIVE BOD for positive correlation (1) between rank and duration of interactions (playing for more time) with toys in females
(1)
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 7, 8 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-on-22-q03
Oct/Nov 2024 · Paper 22 · Question 3 · 4 marks
3 In the study by Bandura et al. (aggression), details are not given about consent from the parents or the children.
3(a) Explain what is meant by ‘informed consent’. 2
Sufficient understanding = 1
To agree = 1
Giving participants enough details about the (procedure of) the study; (understand)
so that they can decide whether they want to participate; (agree)
If responses only talk about consent = 0
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 8 of 20
3(b) Suggest how informed consent could have been obtained from the children in this study in a way that they would 2
have understood.
Gain consent = 1
Child-friendliness = 1
e.g. Tell the children they will have some of the toys (but not others); (child friendly)
is that okay? (consent)
e.g. That they can watch an adult play with the toys;); (child friendly)
Do they want to join in and play as well? (consent)
e.g. Give them the aims/explain the study and see if they agree (generic informed consent only)
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 8, 9 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-on-22-q04
Oct/Nov 2024 · Paper 22 · Question 4 · 6 marks
4 Daniel used a sample of 20 participants in a laboratory experiment using a repeated measures design. He had two
conditions:
• listening to loud music
• listening to quiet music.
4(a) Outline what is meant by a ‘repeated measures design’. Include an example from Daniel’s study. 2
Generic = 1 maximum
Explanation = 1
Example = 1
The same participants in every level of the IV / condition; (explanation)
All participants heard quiet & loud music; (example)
4(b)(i) Outline what is meant by ‘counterbalancing’. Include an example from Daniel’s study. 2
Generic = 1 maximum
Explanation = 1
Example = 1
Different participants do the conditions in different orders; (explanation)
Half/10 do soft then loud, half do loud then soft; (example)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 9 of 20
4(b)(ii) Explain one strength of a repeated measures design, other than the use of counterbalancing. 2
does not need to be linked for 2 marks but needs sufficient detail
strength = 1
detail (generic or linked) = 1
Individual differences between participants even out; (strength)
e.g. A participant who is ‘better’ will be better in both conditions (rather than being in just one condition and affecting the
results); (generic detail)
E.g. some participants may enjoy loud music more than others; (linked detail)
It is more cost effective/less time consuming to find one set of participants (strength)
e.g. A researcher may need to give incentives to a participant so the less they need to give participants the less the study
will cost. (detail)
e.g. A researcher may need funding for their research so the less time/cost the more likely they are to get funding (detail)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 10 of 20
Official mark scheme pages: 9, 10 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-on-22-q05
Oct/Nov 2024 · Paper 22 · Question 5 · 6 marks
5 Describe the techniques of ‘paper and pencil’ questionnaires and ‘online’ questionnaires, using any example(s). 6
1 mark for each definition/point of detail, up to a maximum of 4 in total.
1 mark for each example, max 2 for each term/concept.
Examples can include examples from any studies (core studies, other studies, candidate’s own studies).
Max 4 if no examples or if only about one term/concept.
Only 1 example needed to access 6 marks.
Paper and Pencil
• questionnaires have (questions asked) in written form; (definition)
• ‘Pencil and paper’ mean that the participants fill in a physical sheet/a printed out questionnaire then give it to the
researcher (definition)
• Participants will complete their answers on question paper using a pen or pencil rather than electronically (detail)
• Where a participant fills in a questionnaire by hand/manually (definition)
• Completed in a ‘real life’ situation
Online
• ‘online’ means the participant and researcher communicate using digital technology (definition)
• Questionnaire filled in on a website/email/ mobile phone/social media/tablet (max 2 for this type of detail)
• Participants will access the questionnaire virtually.
• Participants will access through the use of an internet connection (detail)
• Participants will submit the form electronically (detail)
Both
• both can use closed and open questions/ can generate quantitative and qualitative data; (detail only credited once)
e.g. Holzel et al. use FFMQ (mindfulness questionnaire) pencil and paper.
e.g. Baron-Cohen gave participants the AQ (Autism Quotient, a questionnaire) to complete online
e.g. Perry et al. used the IRI, online test of empathy.
Note: paper & pencil does not mean face-to-face (often by post)
Note: Perry did not use paper & pencil CIDS
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 11 of 20
Official mark scheme pages: 11 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-on-22-q06
Oct/Nov 2024 · Paper 22 · Question 6 · 9 marks
6 Mohsin is investigating whether colour affects supermarket shoppers’ food choices. He is comparing healthy and
unhealthy snacks that are displayed in blue or green packaging. He spends two weeks conducting a field
experiment.
In Week 1 he displays the following combination:
• healthy snacks in blue packets
• unhealthy snacks in blue packets.
In the Week 2 he displays the following combination:
• healthy snacks in green packets
• unhealthy snacks in green packets.
Mohsin counts the number of each packet sold.
6(a) Identify the two independent variables (IVs) in Mohsin’s study. 2
1 mark per named IV or both levels [2]
Packaging colour / blue and green = 1
Healthiness of snacks / healthy and unhealthy = 1
6(b) Mohsin will conduct his experiment for two more weeks. This is to be certain that only the independent variables
are affecting the dependent variable.
6(b)(i) State the two other combinations that Mohsin should display in the additional weeks. 2
In one week he should display the following combination:
In the other week he should display the following combination:
1 mark per correct combination [x2] DEFINITIVE
• healthy snacks in green packets with healthy snacks in blue packets;
• unhealthy snacks in green packets with unhealthy snacks in blue packets;
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 12 of 20
6(b)(ii) Explain why the two combinations that you stated in part (b)(i) would be useful. 2
Explanation = 1
Detail = 1
it would control for food type; (explanation)
It would show whether it is really the colour that matters; (explanation)
Rather than just people food choices; (detail)
6(c) Define the term ‘population’. 1
Definition = 1
individuals who share characteristics/share a characteristic/have something in common.
OR
All the individuals in a group
OR
Group from which a sample can be chosen from.
NOT all individuals from one specific area/location/town
6(d) Outline the population being studied by Mohsin. 2
Shared characteristic = 1 (2)
People who visit the supermarket.
In his town/live near the supermarket.
Who buy snacks/food/groceries.
Who are not (green or blue) colourblind;
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 13 of 20
Official mark scheme pages: 12, 13 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-on-22-q07
Oct/Nov 2024 · Paper 22 · Question 7 · 7 marks
7 Jenny has noticed that some of her school friends doodle and some do not doodle. This may be because some of
her friends are more creative than others. She plans to explore this difference using a questionnaire.
7(a)(i) Write one closed question that Jenny could use to investigate the creativity of her friends. 1
Closed question with answer choices = 1
Are you creative? Yes / No
How creative are you on a scale of 0 (not at all)–10 (very)?
Are you creative or unimaginative?
‘I like to invent things’ Agree/don’t know/disagree.
7(a)(ii) Write one open question that Jenny could use to investigate the creativity of her friends. 1
Open question = 1
Describe how creative you are.
Explain why you think you are creative.
Tell me about the creative things you do.
How do you show your creativity? please explain.
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 14 of 20
7(b) Jenny’s friends study different subjects at school. 3
Suggest why differences between the subjects they study could also explain the differences in doodling.
One Suggestion = 1 Detail = 2 (marks) OR
Two (different) suggestions = 2 Detail (of one) = 1 (marks)
Some subjects may be more boring/more interesting (suggestion)
Boredom may lead the friends to daydream more; (detail)
If it was boring, you would doodle more to concentrate on the lesson; (detail)
If it was more interesting, they would concentrate on lesson and not doodle (1) (detail)
So, it would not be the ‘type’ of friend; (detail).
It may be that some subjects require students to show their creativity in lessons anyway (suggestion)
e.g. students who take art and design subjects will be more likely to doodle (detail)
e.g. Because they are good at drawing/ they are used to doing it in their subjects (detail).
e.g. Students who take science subject would doodle less as they’re less used to being creative/doodling.
Only some subjects where you can sit and listen and have time to doodle (suggestion)
e.g. in English/psychology, you may listen to the teacher more (detail)
e.g. If you listen rather than ‘doing something’ you may doodle more (detail)
e.g. But Science/art are more practical subjects so won’t have time to doodle as much (as in English). (detail)
7(c) Jenny wants to conduct an overt observation of her friends doodling. She wants to do this the day after they 2
complete the questionnaire.
Suggest why this may not produce valid results.
Suggestion = 1
Detail (generic or linked) = 1
Demand characteristics; (suggestion)
They would know her aim; (suggestion/generic detail)
So, doodle more / less /differently; (linked detail)
So, they would change their behaviour to please the researcher (generic detail)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 15 of 20
Official mark scheme pages: 14, 15 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-on-22-q08
Oct/Nov 2024 · Paper 22 · Question 8 · 8 marks
8 Parul has conducted a study about happiness. She has counted the number of her colleagues who are smiling
when they arrive at work on Monday and on Friday. Fig 8.1 shows a graph of her results.
8(a) Write axis headings for the x-axis and the y-axis on Fig 8.1. 2
x-axis heading = 1
day (of the week);
y-axis heading = 1
number of colleagues (who are smiling when they arrive at work);
8(b) Parul’s friend says that she should have conducted the study for more than one week. 2
Explain one reason why it would have been better to have conducted the study for more than one week.
reason = 1
linked detail = 1
(To improve) generalisability/reliability/improves validity; (reason)
Reduces effects of confounding variables (reason)
Because some people’s mood may have been affected by something other than the day of the week; (detail)
Because some people might have been unwell that one week (which will affect their mood); (detail)
There may have been an event at work which made people happier/more stressed; (detail)
They might not smile as they have had a problem at work/argued with a member of staff; (detail)
8(c) Parul counted the number of colleagues smiling but now thinks this may not have been the best way to measure
happiness.
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 16 of 20
8(c)(i) Suggest one other way that Parul could have measured happiness. 2
way = 1
detail = 1
laughter; (way)
time the length of the laughter/how loud the laughter is; (detail)
positive body language (way)
how many times they high five/hug (detail)
a questionnaire/interview; (way)
using closed questions like ‘How happy are you on a scale of 0 (not at all) to 5 (very happy); (detail)
using open questions and ask them to describe how they feel; (detail)
8(c)(ii) For the measure of happiness, you have suggested in part (c)(i): 2
Explain one advantage of this measure of happiness compared with counting the number of colleagues smiling.
explanation = 1
detail = 1
Laughter:
Laughter is a more reliable measurement than smiling (reason)
as you can hear and see it, so Parul is less likely to miss a person laughing than smiling (detail)
Questionnaire/interview (scale/close question):
Each person would have a rating of happiness rather than just a score of whether they smile/are not smiling, (reason)
so, there will be more detail about how happy they actually are; (detail)
Use of rating scales to measure would mean less researcher bias as participants are answering the questions themselves
(reason);
they will know their own level of happiness rather than Parul assuming smiling means they are happy) (detail)
Questionnaire (open question):
Open questions about happiness will give more detail than just a score of smiling/not smiling; (reason)
so, Parul could know how happy they are/and why; (detail)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 17 of 20
Official mark scheme pages: 16, 17 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-on-22-q09
Oct/Nov 2024 · Paper 22 · Question 9 · 14 marks
9 Lixin is investigating the social behaviour of adults. He plans to observe adults in a town centre during their lunch
break.
9(a) Describe how Lixin could conduct an observational study using a structured observation to investigate the social 10
behaviour of adults in a town centre during their lunch break.
Do not describe sample/sampling technique or ethical issues/ guidelines in your answer.
Use the table below to mark candidate responses to this question.
The four required features for this participant observation are:
(a) participant/non-participant: (how the observer(s) will be engaged in the context of socialising in the town centre or
not)
(b) overt/covert: (how the observer(s) will be obvious or keep hidden)
(c) naturalistic/controlled; (almost definitely naturalistic – no manipulation/intervention/natural environment)
(d) structured (behavioural categories): (list of behaviours – at least 3 – and operational definitions)
Other appropriate responses should also be credited.
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 18 of 20
9(a)
Level The response:
Level 5 • has all the required features, all with detail, with mostly appropriate terminology.
9–10 marks AND
• clearly applies knowledge of methodology involved in planning an investigation.
Level 4 • has all the required features, but only some of these with detail, with some appropriate terminology.
7–8 marks AND
• applies knowledge of methodology involved in planning an investigation.
Level 3 • has some of the required features with detail / all of the required features with no detail, and some
5–6 marks appropriate terminology.
AND
• applies a basic knowledge of methodology involved in planning an investigation.
Level 2 • has at least two of the required features, with little appropriate terminology.
3–4 marks AND
• attempts to use knowledge of methodology involved in planning an investigation.
Level 1 • has one of the required features and uses little appropriate terminology.
1–2 marks AND
• makes a limited attempt to use knowledge of methodology involved in planning an investigation, e.g.
may not use the method required by the question.
0 marks No creditable response.
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 19 of 20
9(b)(i) Explain how one feature of the procedure you described in part (a) helps to make the study valid. 2
Do not refer to sampling or ethics in your answer.
identification of helpful part for validity = 1
explanation (generic or linked) = 1
Part of procedure may relate to:
• operationalisation
• situational / participant variables factors
• controls / standardisation
• being participant/non-participant
• being overt/covert
Accept other practical/methodological features.
9(b)(ii) Explain how one feature of the procedure you described in part (a) could be a problem for the validity of the study. 2
Do not refer to sampling or ethics in your answer.
identification of problem for validity = 1
explanation (generic or linked) = 1
Part of procedure may relate to:
• operationalisation
• situational / participant variables factors
• controls / standardisation
• being participant/non-participant
• being overt/covert
Accept other practical/methodological features.
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 20 of 20
Official mark scheme pages: 18, 19, 20 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-on-23-q01
Oct/Nov 2024 · Paper 23 · Question 1 · 1 marks
1 Outline what is meant by the term ‘random sampling’. 1
Explanation = 1
selecting participants so that each has an equal chance of being chosen/selected;
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 7 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-on-23-q02
Oct/Nov 2024 · Paper 23 · Question 2 · 2 marks
2 In a laboratory experiment, the happiness of participants is being compared in two situations: 2
• with other people
• without other people.
Identify the dependent variable (DV) in this study. Justify your answer.
Identification of DV = 1
Justification of DV = 1
Happiness; (id)
Because it is being measured; (justification)
Because it changes with people/no people; (justification)
Because it changes with the IV; (justification)
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 7 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-on-23-q03
Oct/Nov 2024 · Paper 23 · Question 3 · 3 marks
3 In the study by Fagen et al. (elephant learning), most of the data collected was quantitative. Some qualitative data
was collected, including an initial observation that one elephant preferred to drink saline rather than water.
3(a) Define what is meant by ‘qualitative data’. 1
Definition = 1
Descriptive / in-depth / detailed data;
Note: ‘in words’ = 0
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 7 of 19
3(b) Define what is meant by ‘quantitative data’. Include an example from Fagen et al. 2
Description = 1
Example = 1 (can stand alone)
Numerical / produces a count / totals in categories;
e.g. Fagan et al. time / number of cue offers / % success on tasks of: trunk wash (or trunk up / trunk here / bucket / blow /
blow in bucket);
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 7, 8 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-on-23-q04
Oct/Nov 2024 · Paper 23 · Question 4 · 6 marks
4 Studies in social psychology can use stooges or imagined people to cause participants to respond.
4(a) In the study by Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans), stooges were used as ‘victims’. 2
Suggest one way to improve the ecological validity of this study in relation to the victims.
Suggestion to improving realism (can be generic) = 1
Link = 1
Make the victim’s behaviour/appearance/smell more realistic; (generic suggestion)
ego make the drunk victim smell of alcohol; (link)
e.g. put the ill victim’s leg in plaster;
Include females within the sample/more ethnicities (generic suggestion)
Egg females have different characteristics making the study reflect real life helping behaviour more (rather than just having
males);
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 8 of 19
4(b) In the study by Perry et al. (personal space) Experiment 1, responses to imagined people were measured.
4(b)(i) Suggest one reason why measuring responses to imagined people is more ethical than measuring responses to 2
stooges.
Ethical reason (can be generic) = 1
Link = 1
Less distressing; (generic reason)
if it is stressful, you can stop imagining (unlike if the situation is real); (link)
as you can’t escape from the stooges as they are real (but can for imagined people) ; (linked reason)
less need for deception; (generic reason)
as they are told what to imagine; (link)
as stooges only work if the Ps are unaware; (link)
Note: ‘less ethical’ = 0
4(b)(ii) Suggest one reason why measuring responses to stooges is more practical than measuring responses to 2
imagined people.
Practical reason (can be generic) = 1
Link = 1
Fewer demand characteristics/less social desirability; (generic reason)
As Ps do not need to be told what to imagine; (link)
Stooge behaviour can be controlled / all Ps will experience the same influence; (linked reason)
Whereas imaginings may differ from person to person; (link)
More realistic than using imagined people (reason)
So, their reactions to people coming into their personal with be natural (link)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 9 of 19
Official mark scheme pages: 8, 9 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-on-23-q05
Oct/Nov 2024 · Paper 23 · Question 5 · 2 marks
5 Pozzulo et al. (line-ups) calculated the mean number of correct identifications of human faces per child. 2
Explain how the researchers calculated this mean in this study.
Partial explanation of how the mean is calculated= 1
Correct explanation of how the mean is calculated in Pozzulo’s study = 2
Add/sum up all the values and divide by the number of scores; = 1 (partial generic explanation)
Add up all the correct identification of human faces and divide by the number of possible identifications/number of targets/ =
2 (correct linked explanation)
Note: Add up all the correct identifications and divide by the number of children = 1 (as correct method of a generic mean)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 10 of 19
Official mark scheme pages: 10 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-on-23-q06
Oct/Nov 2024 · Paper 23 · Question 6 · 6 marks
6 Describe laboratory experiments and field experiments, using any example(s). 6
1 mark for each definition/point of detail, up to a maximum of 2 for each term/concept.
1 mark for each example, max 2 for each term/concept.
Examples can include examples from any studies (core studies, other studies, candidate’s own studies).
Max 4 if no examples or if only about one term/concept.
Only 1 example needed to access 6 marks.
Examples can include examples from any studies (core studies, other studies, candidate’s own studies).
Laboratory experiment:
has (manipulated) IV and (measured) DV; (definition)
happens in an artificial environment; (definition)
So there can be many controls; (definition)
IV & DV e.g.:
Hölzel IV was pre/post mindfulness course, DV was brain scans;
Perry IV was different antagonists, DV was personal space need;
Controls e.g.:
Dement & Kleitman controlled for factors affecting sleep as participants told not to drink alcohol/caffeine;
Andrade controls also given paper and pencil; all doodling condition given sheets to constrain doodling;
Baron-Cohen et al. access to a glossary controlled for understanding of the words;
Field experiment:
has (manipulated) IV and (measured) DV; (definition)
happens in the normal environment for the activity being investigated; (definition)
So there can be some/few controls; (definition)
Piliavin et al. IV victim: cane or drunk, DV helping;
Piliavin et al. social interaction/helping happens on subways;
Piliavin et al. controlled the actions/clothing of the stooge;
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 11 of 19
Official mark scheme pages: 11 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-on-23-q07
Oct/Nov 2024 · Paper 23 · Question 7 · 9 marks
7 Daiyu is conducting a case study about a seven-year-old child with autism. She is interested in the child’s
interactions with their family and other children.
7(a) Suggest two techniques, other than interviews, that Daiyu could use in her case study to collect data about the 4
child. Justify your answers.
Identification of technique = 1 [2]
Justification of technique = 1 [2]
Observation; (Id)
Data is about actual interactions, not remembered reports / would not need to rely on memory; (justification)
Questionnaire; (Id)
As children with ASD may not interview well / may be better at writing than answering face-to-face; (justification)
Note: describing how the observation/questionnaire could be administered does not achieve a second mark
7(b) Suggest two pieces of information about the child’s interactions that would be useful for Daiyu to collect in her 4
case study. Justify your answers.
Identification of info about interactions = 1 [2]
Justification of info about interactions = 1 [2]
Responding to social cues; (Id)
individuals with ASD don’t recognise emotions well so might not interact well with others as a result; (justification)
Differences in interactions with children and adults; (Id)
Frequency of interactions (Id)
as the children with ASD may interact more with their family than other children due to being more familiar (justification)
Justification must be specific, e.g.
Making eye contact; (Id)
Not making eye contact is a characteristic of ASD; (justification)
Responding to questions; (Id)
avoiding social interaction is a characteristic of ASD; (justification)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 12 of 19
7(c) Outline one practical reason why obtaining information from the child could be difficult. 1
Practical difficulty (generic or linked) = 1
Children don’t communicate well (so hard to ask/observe);
People with ASD don’t communicate well (so hard to ask/observe);
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 12, 13 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-on-23-q08
Oct/Nov 2024 · Paper 23 · Question 8 · 7 marks
8 Hazel is conducting a study in a park to compare the behaviours of adults who have children with them and adults
who do not have children with them. She plans to record three behaviours of the adults: whistling, singing and
shouting, rather than all actions that people perform.
8(a) Explain the type of observation that Hazel plans to use because she is only recording whistling, singing and 2
shouting.
Identification = 1
Explanation = 1
Structured observation; (id) [DEFINITIVE]
Because (behaviour in) categories/ there is a fixed/limited number of behaviours looked for (e.g. sing); (explanation)
8(b) Outline how Hazel could operationalise one of the three behaviours she plans to record. 1
Outline = 1
Sing = performing words to a tune
Whistle = making a noise by blowing through lips/teeth;
Shout = project voice / talk very loudly;
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 13 of 19
8(c) Hazel had planned to be an overt observer, but a colleague has said she should be a covert observer.
8(c)(i) Suggest one reason why it would be more ethical to be an overt observer than a covert observer in this study. 2
Ethical reason for being overt = 1
link = 1
Hard to ensure privacy / consent / protection / right to withdraw when covert; (reason)
Objection to being watched when out walking; (link)
worry that their children are being watched; (link)
8(c)(ii) Suggest one reason why it would be more practical to be a covert observer than an overt observer in this study. 2
Practical reason for being covert = 1
link = 1
Can get close to participants; (reason)
So she could see/hear exactly what they were saying / singing; (link)
Fewer demand characteristics/less social desirability; (generic reason)
Ps may whistle etc more/less if aware they are being watched; (link)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 14 of 19
Official mark scheme pages: 13, 14 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-on-23-q09
Oct/Nov 2024 · Paper 23 · Question 9 · 10 marks
9 Hudson is planning to correlate how much a person wants to sleep (sleepiness) and the amount of time since their
last meal. He will ask people to estimate the amount of time since their last meal, but he needs to find a way to
measure sleepiness.
9(a)(i) Suggest one way that Hudson could measure sleepiness. Do not use an interview in your answer. 2
Suggestion = 1
Detail = 1
Questionnaire; (suggestion)
Ask them to respond to a question with a scale 0–5 are you sleeping 0 (not at all) to 5 (very sleepy); (detail)
Observe; (suggestion)
How often their eyes close; (detail)
Digital technology (suggestion)
Use of health apps to measure alertness/energy (detail)
9(a)(ii) Explain one strength of the measure of sleepiness you suggested in part (a)(i). 2
Strength = 1
Detail = 1 [this may be a comparison]
Questionnaire:
They can indicate ‘how much’ (they feel sleepy); (st)
(rather than sleepy/not) so can measure extent; (det)
Digital technology:
It is an objective/unbiased measure of alertness (st)
Rather than an observation where the researcher may misinterpret behaviours as sleepiness (when they’re not) (det)
Observe:
People may not be aware how tired they are; (st)
So, observation is more accurate than self-report; (det)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 15 of 19
9(a)(iii) Explain one weakness of the measure of sleepiness you suggested in part (a)(i). 2
Weakness = 1
Detail = 1 [this may be a comparison]
Questionnaire:
People may not want to admit (they feel sleepy); (w)
so invalid / affected by social desirability; (det)
Observe:
People may hide signs of sleepiness; (weak)
So appear less sleepy than they really are; (det)
Whereas they couldn’t hide it on an EEG; (comp)
Digital technology:
It is just a quantitative measure of physical state/biology (weak)
So, there will be no detail about why they are sleepy/the measurements may be due to other factors (such as illness/stress)
(detail)
9(b) Sketch a scatter graph, using the axes below, to show what the pattern of results would look like if Hudson found a 4
negative correlation. You must label the axes.
axis headings (sleepiness) = 1 (can be on either axes)
Axis headings (‘time since last meal’) = 1
Axis units for ‘time since last meal’ e.g. mins/hours = 1
Negative correlation shown = 1
e.g.
sleepiness
time since last meal
(hours)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 16 of 19
Official mark scheme pages: 15, 16 · source PDF URL
9990-2024-on-23-q10
Oct/Nov 2024 · Paper 23 · Question 10 · 14 marks
10 Zeta notices that people respond in different ways to advertisements for products. People may find the
advertisements funny, annoying and/or informative. She is interested in advertisements for foods, vehicles and
mobile phones.
10(a) Describe how Zeta could conduct a study using an interview to investigate the different ways that people respond 10
to advertisements for different products.
Do not describe sample/sampling technique or ethical issues/guidelines in your answer.
Use the table below to mark candidate responses to this question.
The four required features for this interview are:
(a) question format (open / closed questions/fillers/types of closed questions e.g. ranked scale/yes or no/multiple
choice/type of data produced)
(b) examples of questions (at least two products and two responses)
(c) question scoring / interpretation (e.g. use of numerical scoring / measures of central tendency / analysis of qualitative
data)
(d) format: (description of structured/unstructured/semi-structured)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 17 of 19
10(a)
Level The response:
Level 5 • has all the required features, all with detail, with mostly appropriate terminology.
9–10 marks AND
• clearly applies knowledge of methodology involved in planning an investigation.
Level 4 • has all the required features, but only some of these with detail, with some appropriate terminology.
7–8 marks AND
• applies knowledge of methodology involved in planning an investigation.
Level 3 • has some of the required features with detail / all of the required features with no detail, and some
5–6 marks appropriate terminology.
AND
• applies a basic knowledge of methodology involved in planning an investigation.
Level 2 • has at least two of the required features, with little appropriate terminology.
3–4 marks AND
• attempts to use knowledge of methodology involved in planning an investigation.
Level 1 • has one of the required features and uses little appropriate terminology.
1–2 marks AND
• makes a limited attempt to use knowledge of methodology involved in planning an investigation, e.g.
may not use the method required by the question.
0 marks No creditable response.
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 18 of 19
10(b)(i) Explain how one part of the procedure you described in part (a) helps to make the study reliable. 2
Do not refer to sampling or ethics in your answer.
identification of helpful part for reliability = 1
explanation (generic or linked) = 1
Part of procedure may relate to:
• consistency within the rater
• test-retest
• replication
Accept other practical/methodological features.
10(b)(ii) Explain how one part of the procedure you described in part (a) could be a problem for the reliability of the study. 2
Do not refer to sampling or ethics in your answer.
identification of problem part for reliability = 1
explanation (generic or linked) = 1
Part of procedure may relate to:
• consistency within and between raters (if compared)
• test-retest
• replication
Accept other practical/methodological features.
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 Page 19 of 19
Official mark scheme pages: 17, 18, 19 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-m-22-q01
March 2025 · Paper 22 · Question 1 · 5 marks
1(a) Outline what is meant by an overt observation. 1
Outline = 1
When the role of the observer is not hidden/ is obvious;
When people know / are aware that they being observed;
1(b)(i) Suggest one reason why an overt observation may be better than a 2
covert observation.
(Comparative) suggestion = 1
Detail / comparison = 1
Must make comparison for 2 marks
More ethical (when overt); (suggestion)
As easier to obtain consent / people can withdraw because they know they
are in a study; (detail)
but Ps will not know to withdraw if it is covert; (comparison)
1(b)(ii) Suggest one reason why an overt observation may not be better than a 2
covert observation.
(Comparative) suggestion = 1
Detail / comparison = 1
Must make comparison for 2 marks
Higher risk of social desirability (when overt) (suggestion);
As Ps will respond to the observer’s expectations (detail);
but in covert they have no reason to act more favourably; (comparison)
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 6 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-m-22-q02
March 2025 · Paper 22 · Question 2 · 3 marks
2 Dr Bryan has been asked to investigate the effects of a new drug for 3
people with a psychological disorder. Each week, Dr Bryan’s patients
visit him to receive the drug and to report their symptoms.
Explain what makes this investigation a longitudinal study.
Explanation = 2
link = 1
same participants/patients tested repeatedly; (explanation)
over a (long) period of time/over multiple weeks; (explanation)
Because they will need to see how well the drug works after several
prescriptions; (link)
will need to track changes in symptoms over time; (link)
Visit him every week to take the drug; (link/explanation)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 6 of 14
Official mark scheme pages: 6 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-m-22-q03
March 2025 · Paper 22 · Question 3 · 2 marks
3 In the study by Hölzel et al. (mindfulness and brain scans), two 2
participants withdrew from the sample due to the MRI scan being
uncomfortable.
Explain why the withdrawal of these two participants could have
reduced the validity of the study.
Explanation = 1 (generic or specific)
Detail of specific effect on validity in Hölzel = 1
Smaller sample size; (generic)
Sample would be biased/increased effect of individual differences; (specific)
Because the participants who withdrew might have been more stressed;
(specific detail)
Both male participants who withdrew so would have introduced a gender bias
(Specific)
One gender might be more stressed / more responsive to MBSR (1)
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 7 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-m-22-q04
March 2025 · Paper 22 · Question 4 · 3 marks
4 In studies in cognitive psychology, groups of participants are often
given tests that produce numerical data so that the groups can be
compared.
4(a) Outline the most appropriate measure of central tendency to use for a 2
maths test in which each question is equally difficult.
Measure of central tendency = 1 [Mean (definitive)]
link = 1
Mean; (definitive)
Of the (maths test) scores/(test) scores/scores (on test); (link)
4(b) In a study, the measures of central tendency from the maths tests of two 1
groups of participants could be compared.
State the most appropriate type of graph to use for this data.
Type of graph = 1 [bar chart/graph definitive]
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 7 of 14
Official mark scheme pages: 7 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-m-22-q05
March 2025 · Paper 22 · Question 5 · 3 marks
5 In the study by Fagen et al. (elephant learning), one way that data was
collected about elephant learning was the performance test.
5(a) Suggest one way that the performance test could have lacked validity. 2
Justify your answer.
Suggestion = 1
Justification = 1
The elephant only had to reach 80% correct; (suggestion)
The other 20% may have been ‘a bit’ or ‘a lot’ wrong; (justification)
5(b) Suggest one way that the validity of the performance test could have 1
been improved.
Suggestion = 1
Expecting the elephant to reach 90/100% correct;
Add more specific operationalisation;
E.g. trunk height / trunk orientation;
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 8 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-m-22-q06
March 2025 · Paper 22 · Question 6 · 6 marks
6 Describe quantitative data and qualitative data, using any example(s). 6
1 mark for each definition/point of detail, up to a maximum of 2 for each
term/concept.
1 mark for each example, max 2 for each term/concept.
Examples can include examples from any studies (core studies, other studies,
candidate’s own studies).
Max 4 if no examples or if only about one term/concept.
Only 1 example needed to access 6 marks.
quantitative data:
numerical data / can be measured / counted;
from closed questions /Likert scales /rating scales (in self reports);
behavioural categories (in observations);
can be analysed using statistics/represented on graphs;
e.g. Andrade participants’ recall of names/places;
e.g. Milgram participants’ voltage levels;
e.g. Piliavin et al. helping/not helping totals;
e.g. maths test;
qualitative data:
descriptive/in-depth data;
from open questions (in self reports);
from non-focused observations;
from thematic analysis;
from transcripts of interviews;
media e.g. radio, newspapers;
e.g. Saavedra and Silverman descriptions of the boy’s phobia;
e.g. Milgram participants’ reactions;
e.g. Piliavin et al. verbal comments;
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 8 of 14
Official mark scheme pages: 8 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-m-22-q07
March 2025 · Paper 22 · Question 7 · 11 marks
7 Jacinda, a factory manager, is planning a study about her workers’
interpersonal distance preferences.
7(a) Jacinda arranges the distance between workstations. In one section of
the factory the distance between workstations is large and in another
section the distance between workstations is small.
7(a)(i) Suggest two situational variables that should be controlled so that they 2
are the same for the two sections of the factory.
Situational variable = 1 2
Temperature (of the workplace);
Amount of noise;
Whether there is music playing;
Lighting;
If the work means they need to interact;
If they have workstations /structure of the workstations;
The type of job;
Hours worked;
How physical their work is;
Number of people / workstations (in each section);
Number of participants = 0
7(a)(ii) For each of your suggestions in part (ai): 4
Explain why each situational variable would be relevant to Jacinda’s
study.
Explanation = 1
Detail = 1
If people are too hot, being cramped together would seem worse;
So this might affect their preference;
So they might want a bigger personal space;
To interact people might need to be closer;
So they would be happier with a smaller personal space;
Fixed workstations would mean they know their colleagues;
So they would be happier with a smaller personal space
7(b) Suggest how Jacinda could obtain a volunteer sample for her study. 3
Suggestion related to volunteering = 1 [can be generic]
Detail about how = 1 [can be generic detail]
Link (to Jacinda’s study) = 1
Send an email/put up flyers/advertise in a newspaper (suggestion)
At their company email address/on their workstations/that is distributed to the
workforce (link to study)
Use people who reply/give contact details so can reply (Generic detail)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 9 of 14
7(c) Suggest how Jacinda could measure her participants’ interpersonal 2
distance preference, other than by using an interview.
Suggested method / technique / format for how = 1
Linked detail = 1
Questionnaire; (method)
E.g. ask ‘How close could a colleague’s workstation be to yours without being
distressing?’ (linked detail)
Use an open question; (format)
Describe how far away from you someone needs to sit at work for you to feel
comfortable; (detail)
Ask them to mark on a visual scale / SIDs; (technique)
The distance in metres they would be happy with; (detail)
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 9, 10 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-m-22-q08
March 2025 · Paper 22 · Question 8 · 6 marks
8 Dr Foster is conducting research about cognition using monkeys in a
laboratory. He wants to provide ethical housing for them so will
investigate which materials the monkeys prefer to sleep on inside their
cages. The monkeys will be given two choices: leaves or paper.
8(a)(i) Suggest one ethical reason why it is important that the monkeys are 1
comfortable in the environment in which they are housed when they are
not being tested.
Do not refer to the ethical guideline of ‘housing’.
Suggestion = 1 [description of pain/distress or reference to guideline]
(Lack of comfort would not be ethical because it could break the ethical
guideline of) ‘pain and distress’;
The monkeys on leaves/paper may be uncomfortable/frightened;
Could also refer to guideline of deprivation – of natural/normal/preferred
material (of twigs/fur/soil etc)
Note: psychological harm = 0 [human guideline]
8(a)(ii) Suggest one methodological reason why it is important that the 1
monkeys are comfortable in the environment in which they are tested.
Suggestion = 1
If they are not comfortable/have not slept well they would not behave
normally, so the study would lose validity;
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 10 of 14
8(b) Suggest one way to measure which material the monkeys prefer inside 2
their cages.
Way = 1
Detail = 1
Put out known weight/volume of different materials; (way)
Measure the weight/volume of each after nesting; (detail)
Set up an observer / camera and different materials; (way)
Record each time each material is taken; (detail)
Record the number of hours sleep the monkeys have; (detail)
Record the amount of time spent inside the cage/asleep; (detail)
8(c) Identify two features that are important in the ‘housing’ guideline in 2
relation to animal ethics.
Do not refer to the material inside an animal’s cage.
Feature = 1 2
Food / water;
Space;
Companions / isolation;
Temp;
Light;
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 10, 11 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-m-22-q09
March 2025 · Paper 22 · Question 9 · 7 marks
9 A psychologist is investigating whether there is a relationship between
happiness and exercise. He thinks that either:
• being happier would make people exercise more
• exercising more would make people happier
• happiness and exercise are both affected by another variable.
9(a) Explain why it is better to use a correlation than an experiment for this 2
investigation.
Explanation = 1
Detail = 1
The relationship may not be causal; (explanation)
Unethical to manipulate happiness (explanation)
So it would not be possible to isolate the IV; (detail)
9(b) Suggest one way that exercise could be measured in this investigation. 1
Way = 1
Number of steps a day;
Calories used / distance covered;
Duration;
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 11 of 14
9(c) For the way of measuring exercise that you suggested in part (b):
9(c)(i) Suggest one strength of this way of measuring exercise. 2
Strength = 1
Detail = 1
Number of steps a day:
Can use a wearable counter / smart watch /Fitbit; (strength)
Accurate so valid; (detail)
Not inconvenient so Ps will be likely to participate; (detail)
Calories used:
Different types of exercise could be measured; (strength)
Such as swimming or running; (detail)
9(c)(ii) Suggest one weakness of this way of measuring exercise. 2
Weakness = 1
Detail = 1
Number of steps a day:
Some people walk faster; (weakness)
So exercise more (for the same number of steps); (detail)
Which would be unreliable; (detail)
Reporting number of steps might be embarrassing; (weakness)
Because it breaks the ‘protection’ guideline; (detail)
Calories used:
People who are overweight will use more calories; (weakness)
So they will look like they are exercising more; (detail)
Which lower validity; (detail)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 12 of 14
Official mark scheme pages: 11, 12 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-m-22-q10
March 2025 · Paper 22 · Question 10 · 14 marks
10 Dr Anand is interested in conversations that children aged 8–10 years
old have with their parents. He wants to know about different features of
these conversations, such as:
• how long they talk for
• what they talk about
• how positive they feel about talking to each other.
He intends to study these conversations using structured interviews.
10(a) Describe how Dr Anand could use structured interviews to study 10
conversations that 8–10 year old children have with their parents.
Do not describe sample/sampling technique or ethical issues/guidelines
in your answer.
To mark Q10(a), create four ‘imaginary columns’ down one margin, using one
column for each of the four required features. Tick each feature (tick-a, tick-
b, tick-c, tick-d) when it appears, then underline the letter ( ) for detail.
Use L1, L2, L3, L4, L5 at the end of the response to indicate the level.
The four required features for this structured interview are:
(a) question format (open / closed questions, fillers)
(b) examples of questions (at least two features and two responses)
(c) question scoring / interpretation (e.g. use of numerical scoring /
measures of central tendency / analysis of qualitative data)
(d) format (description of structured: all Ps receive same questions, same
number of questions, same order of questions, same tone, same clothes)
Level The response:
Level 5 • has all the required features, all with detail, with
9–10 marks mostly appropriate terminology.
AND
• clearly applies knowledge of methodology involved
in planning an investigation.
Level 4 • has all the required features, but only some of
7–8 marks these with detail, with some appropriate
terminology.
AND
• applies knowledge of methodology involved in
planning an investigation.
Level 3 • has some of the required features with detail / all
5–6 marks of the required features with no detail, and some
appropriate terminology.
AND
• applies a basic knowledge of methodology involved
in planning an investigation.
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 13 of 14
10(a)
Level The response:
Level 2 • has at least two of the required features, with little
3–4 marks appropriate terminology.
AND
• attempts to use knowledge of methodology
involved in planning an investigation.
Level 1 • has one of the required features and uses little
1–2 marks appropriate terminology.
AND
• makes a limited attempt to use knowledge of
methodology involved in planning an investigation,
e.g. may not use the method required by the
question.
0 marks No creditable response.
10(b)(i) Explain how one feature of the procedure you described in part (a) helps 2
to make the study reliable.
Do not refer to sampling or ethics in your answer.
Identification of feature = 1
explanation (generic or linked) = 1
Part of procedure may relate to:
• standardisation
• consistency within and between raters.
Accept other practical influences on reliability
10(b)(ii) Explain how one feature of the procedure you described in part (a) could 2
be a problem for reliability of the study.
Do not refer to sampling or ethics in your answer.
Identification of feature = 1
explanation (generic or linked) = 1
Part of procedure may relate to:
• standardisation
• consistency within and between raters.
Accept other practical influences on reliability
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 14 of 14
Official mark scheme pages: 13, 14 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-mj-21-q01
May/June 2025 · Paper 21 · Question 1 · 4 marks
1(a) Describe what is meant by a questionnaire. 2
Description = 1
Detail = 1
• Self-report / questions;
• Written/ on paper / online;
• Written questions = 2
1(b) Explain one practical strength of using a questionnaire. 2 Accept fewer demand characteristics
Explanation = 1 Ethical advantages = 0
Detail / comparison = 1
• unlikely to lie / low risk of social desirability/more likely
to be honest: (explanation)
• because not face to face / no researcher present / fill in
alone: (detail)
• Wider sample as can be posted/online (explanation)
• which means that it will be more
representative/generalisable (detail)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 8 of 27
Official mark scheme pages: 8 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-mj-21-q02
May/June 2025 · Paper 21 · Question 2 · 3 marks
2(a) The study by Bandura et al. (aggression) provides no 1 Answer does not require informed consent but it is correct
information about whether or not consent was obtained
from the participants
Outline what is meant by ‘consent’.
Outline = 1
Consent = agreeing to take part in a study
2(b) Suggest why obtaining consent would have been 2 The children / parents had a choice = 0 [not linked]
important in this study. The children / parents might not have wanted to participate
= 0 [NAQ/not linked]
Linked suggestion = 1
Detail or second linked suggestion = 1
• The children could have been made (permanently) more
aggressive; i.e. needs learn/imitate
• The children could have been hurt;
• The parents might not have wanted the children to learn
aggression;
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 9 of 27
Official mark scheme pages: 9 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-mj-21-q03
May/June 2025 · Paper 21 · Question 3 · 4 marks
3(a) In the study by Milgram, obedience was tested. 2 Generalisability = 0 as repeating the question
Participants with a range of different occupations and
ages were used to improve generalisability.
Suggest one reason why using participants with
different occupations could be important to Milgram’s
test of obedience. Use an example in your answer.
Linked suggestion = 1
Example = 1
Suggestion (linked to obedience)
• because some occupations expect employees to be
more obedient/are more likely to be obedient than other
(linked suggestion) = 1
• As there may be a difference in levels of obedience
dependent on occupation = 1
Examples
• For example, managers / the police expect obedience
from others; (example)
• For example, workers must be (more) obedient to their
employers; (example)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 10 of 27
3(b) Suggest one reason why using participants with 2
different ages could be important to Milgram’s test of
obedience. Use an example in your answer.
Linked suggestion = 1
Example = 1
These two elements must be separate.
Linked Suggestion
• younger people are expected to be more/less obedient
(than older people);
• That different ages would have different levels of
obedience
Examples
• Parents / teachers expect children to obey; (example)
• Older children give orders to younger children;
(example)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 11 of 27
Official mark scheme pages: 10, 11 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-mj-21-q04
May/June 2025 · Paper 21 · Question 4 · 2 marks
4(a) In the study by Baron-Cohen et al. (eyes test), the ages 1 The mean of the AS/HFA group (1) was bigger = 0 [NAQ]
of all participants were known. The mean and standard
deviation of the ages of participants in Groups 1 and 3
are shown in Table 4.1.
Group Mean Standard deviation
Group 1 (AS/HFA 29.7 14.5
adults)
Group 3 (Students) 20.8 0.8
State what the means show about the ages of the two
groups.
Explanation = 1
• That the AS-HFA / Group 1 were older (than the
Students/Group 3); ORA
4(b) State what the standard deviations show about the ages 1 Greater deviation / deviated more = 0 [REP]
of the two groups. The standard deviation of the AS/HFA group was bigger = 0
[NAQ]
Explanation = 1
• The AS-HFA/ Group 1 ages were more spread out
(than the students/3); ORA
• Larger range of ages in group 1 than group 3
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 12 of 27
Official mark scheme pages: 12 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-mj-21-q05
May/June 2025 · Paper 21 · Question 5 · 2 marks
5 Explain one ethical weakness of the case study 2
research method. Do not use consent in your answer.
Identification of ethical weakness = 1
Detail = 1
• The participant might find it difficult to withdraw;
(weakness)
• because they have built up a relationship with the
researcher; (detail)
• There may be an invasion of privacy; (weakness)
• the researcher cannot know in advance what they will
ask/find; (detail)
• Confidentiality may be at risk; (weakness)
• because details about the P may make them
identifiable; (detail)
• Distress might be caused by the intensity; (weakness)
• e.g. the depth of enquiry might bring up trauma; (detail)
• e.g. Saavedra & Silverman were studying fear; (detail)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 13 of 27
Official mark scheme pages: 13 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-mj-21-q06
May/June 2025 · Paper 21 · Question 6 · 6 marks
6 Describe opportunity sampling and random sampling, 6 No marks for evaluation e.g. more /less representative
using any example(s). No marks for Bandura et al, Holzel et al., Perry et al. as no
information on sampling in the original paper.
1 mark for each definition/point of detail, up to a maximum of Pozzulo – adults volunteered for pool but not known if there
2 for each term/concept. were opportunity or volunteer for sample, nor about child
1 mark for each example, max 2 for each term/concept. participants.
Examples can include examples from any studies (core
studies, other studies, candidate’s own studies).
Max 4 if no examples or if only about one term/concept.
Only 1 example needed to access 6 marks.
Definition of ‘sampling technique’=1 MAX
Opportunity sampling:
• Using participants who are available at the time;
(description)
• Passers-by/students in the researcher’s class; (detail)
• Baron-Cohen et al. found participants in adult
community education class (in Exeter)/(public) library (in
Cambridge); (detail)
• Saavedra & Silverman child (& mother) in treatment (at
Florida International University); (detail)
• Piliavin et al. subway passengers; (detail)
Random sampling:
• Each individual in the population has an equal chance
of being selected;
• getting a numbered list of people/your target population
(1) and putting the numbers in a hat and drawing the
number required / using a random number generator to
select the sample size required; (1) (= 2 for detailed
example here)
• a study might use the list of all students in a school and
select 30 from them (=1 for brief example)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 14 of 27
6 Other examples
• Andrade – accept opportunity as although they had
originally volunteered for a different study, they were
recruited by opportunity after leaving it.
• Dement & Kleitman accept opportunity.
• Baron-Cohen used random sampling (allegedly) = 1
mark
Official mark scheme pages: 14, 15 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-mj-21-q07
May/June 2025 · Paper 21 · Question 7 · 9 marks
7(a)(i) Dr Smith wants to compare how easily two species of 2 Count number of bar presses; in a Skinner box; = 2
animal learn to press a lever to receive food.
Suggest one way that Dr Smith could produce a
quantitative measure of how easily the animals learn.
Identification of way = 1
Detail = 1
Accept any reasonable measure of ease/speed of learning
Learning can be operant or classical conditioning or social
learning
• Skinner box; (way) =1
• Time how long before they press the lever / get food;
(way or detail) =1
• Count the number of lever presses / get food; (way or
detail) =1
• The quicker the pressing of the lever achieves food the
quicker they learn; (detail) =1
• Time how long before they press a lever/get food (way);
the quicker they press the lever/get food the quicker
they learn =2
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 15 of 27
7(a)(ii) The two species are very similar, but one is bigger than 2
the other.
For the way that you suggested for measuring how
easily the animals learn in part (a)(i):
Explain whether this would be valid for both species.
Explanation (of why valid or invalid) = 1
Detail = 1
Valid because:
• Both can operate the lever; (explanation)
• As they are similar /both probably have paws; (detail)
• The learning task would be equally easy; (explanation)
• The task is measuring cognitive abilities to learn and not
size so not relevant (explanation)
Not valid because:
• One is bigger so could reach the lever easily/more
quickly; (explanation)
• So they would look like they learned more easily; ORA
(detail)
• A bigger animal (with bigger paws) may struggle to
press a small lever properly (explanation)
• So they would struggle to get the food even when trying
to press the lever (detail)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 16 of 27
7(b) Draw the axes for a graph that could be used to show 3
the results of Dr Smith’s study using the measure of
learning that you suggested in part (a)(i). You must label
the axes.
For full marks must have 1 mark for x-axis label
and 1 mark for y-axis label
[i.e. x and y units but only 1 label = 2 marks max, not 3]
x-axis label: ‘Species’;
x-axis units: two named species/ species 1 and 2;
y-axis label: ‘Ease of learning’ (e.g. speed, number correct);
y-axis units: numbers;
For PE and TLs only:
For the braille paper the question is:
Describe the axes for a graph that could be used to
show the results of Dr Smith’s study using the measure
of learning that you suggested in part (a)(i). You must
include the labels for the axes.
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 17 of 27
7(b) Marks are allocated: Use BOD when marking this Q on a braille script.
1 mark for label for x axis
1 mark for label for y axis
1 mark for either x axis units (two named species/species 1
and 2)
OR
Y axis units (numbers)
7(c) Suggest how Dr Smith could follow one ethical 2
guideline in relation to animals, other than ‘species’.
Identification of animal guideline = 1 (does not need to be
defined)
Link = 1
• Distress; (guideline)
• Make sure the animals are not frightened in the
Skinner box; (link)
• Housing; (guideline)
• Rats and mice are social, they should not be housed
alone; (link)
• Deprivation; (guideline)
• They must not be hungry just to make them learn; (link)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 18 of 27
Official mark scheme pages: 15, 16, 17, 18 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-mj-21-q08
May/June 2025 · Paper 21 · Question 8 · 10 marks
8(a)(i) Josie is collecting data from other students in her class 2
to test the hypothesis ‘There is a relationship between
tidiness of classwork and enjoyment of lessons’.
Josie will use one of these measures of tidiness:
• look at the work herself and decide whether each
student’s work is tidy or not
• ask the student to rate the tidiness of their work on
a scale of 0 (untidy) to 5 (very tidy).
Explain one problem about validity or reliability that
Josie could have with one of her measures of tidiness.
Linked problem = 1
Correct link to validity OR reliability = 1
Josie looks:
• The student may have a system of working that Josie
does not understand (like putting newest notes at the
front, but Josie expects them at back), so thinks work is
untidy; (linked problem)
• This is a problem of validity; (correct validity)
Students rate:
• Different students might interpret the numbers
differently, e.g. ‘3’ for one student might be much tidier
than for another; (linked problem)
• This is a problem of reliability; (correct reliability)
• validity is limited because only 2-point data if Josie rates
so doesn’t discriminate between different levels of
tidiness = 2
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 19 of 27
8(a)(ii) Explain one problem about ethics that Josie could have 2
with one of her measures of tidiness.
Linked problem = 1
Correct link to guideline = 1
Looking at their work might be embarrassing; (linked
problem)
(Intrusion into) privacy / harm / distress; (correct
guideline/issue)
8(b) The hypothesis that Josie is testing is correlational. 2 Being quantitative (or qualitative) is irrelevant = 0 [NAQ]
Explain which one of the measures of tidiness in part (a)
is not suitable for Josie to use in her correlation.
No mark for selection of measure (e.g. ‘look at the work
herself)
Explanation = 1
Link = 1
• Only continuous / scale / linear data can be
correlated; (explanation)
• Because it contains only nominal data / discrete / the
data needs to be at least ordinal; (explanation)
• And tidy or not tidy is not continuous / is only in
categories; (link)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 20 of 27
8(c)(i) Josie’s data shows that students who enjoy lessons 2 Causal relationships = 0
more have tidier work. e.g. One variable causes the other one increase = 0
e.g. Having a tidy work makes students enjoy lessons more
Explain what Josie will conclude about her correlation. = 0
Explanation first mark
Link second mark
Positive (correlation); (explanation)
As both variables go up together; (explanation)
When tidiness increases/is more, lesson enjoyment
increases/is more; (link) ORA
8(c)(ii) Explain whether Josie can conclude that having tidier 2
classwork influences students’ enjoyment of lessons.
Explanation = 1
Detail (generic or linked) = 1
Explanation
• No, a correlation does not mean causation;
(explanation)
• No, correlations do not test for causal effects;
(explanation)
Detail
• She would not know which of the two variables was the
cause; (detail)
• A third factor could be causing the correlation; (detail)
Linked detail
• (Tidiness and enjoyment) could be due to parents;
(linked detail)
• The tidy work might make students get better grades or
students who get better grades might happen to keep
their files tidy; (linked detail)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 21 of 27
Official mark scheme pages: 19, 20, 21 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-mj-21-q09
May/June 2025 · Paper 21 · Question 9 · 6 marks
9(a)(i) Dr Gao is planning a longitudinal study about changes 1 •
in reading habits. She will study the same group of
participants from childhood, through adolescence and
into adulthood.
Dr Gao will need to contact her participants at regular
intervals.
Dr Gao is deciding how often to test her participants,
and is considering:
• weekly
• yearly.
Explain which of these intervals is the most suitable for
Dr Gao’s study.
Explanation of yearly = 1
• Children’s reading does not change fast enough to be
visible over a week;
• Changes in reading ability are slow, so could take a
year to show
• testing children every week would be unkind/intense/a
lot of pressure/stressful.
9(a)(ii) Suggest how Dr Gao could contact her participants 1
during the study.
Suggesting how to recontact = 1
Send letter/email (to address collected at the start of study);
phone (with number collected as start of study);
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 22 of 27
9(a)(iii) Suggest two problems that Dr Gao may have when 2
trying to contact her participants at regular intervals.
Problem = 1 2
• They might not reply;
• They may have changed address/phone number;
• They may have died/become too ill to participate;
• They may no longer want to participate;
• They may not be available (at that time for a call);
• They may have gone on holiday so cannot reply;
• They may have withdrawn
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 23 of 27
9(b) A colleague, Dr Roberts, says that the study could be 2 References to changes in reading over the lifespan = 0
conducted by comparing participants of different ages [NAQ]
at one point in time. Children read comics but adults read newspapers = 0 [NAQ]
Suggest one advantage of Dr Robert’s idea compared to
Dr Gao’s plan for a longitudinal study.
Do not refer to contacting participants in your answer.
Advantage of Dr Roberts’ idea/disadvantage of longitudinal
= 1
Link = 1
Advantage (or disadvantage of longitudinal)
• Differences may be due to society not age/
(disadvantage)
• Dr Roberts’ idea would mean that you do not have a
third variable of culture/societal changes which may
affect reading habits (advantage)
• You would be less likely to have participants drop out
(subject attrition) when doing the study at one-point int
time (advantage)
Link
• Time available for reading changes with society; (link)
• People now have less time for reading than they did;
(link)
• People read more on the internet now rather than
books; (link)
• Reading materials change over time; (link)
• The results more representative of reading habits than a
longitudinal study (where people have dropped out)
(link)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 24 of 27
Official mark scheme pages: 22, 23, 24 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-mj-21-q10
May/June 2025 · Paper 21 · Question 10 · 14 marks
10(a)
Level The response:
Level 1 • has one of the required features and
1–2 marks uses little appropriate terminology.
AND
• makes a limited attempt to use
knowledge of methodology involved in
planning this investigation, e.g. may
not use the method required by the
question.
0 marks No creditable response.
10(b)(i) Explain one advantage of using an independent 2 No marks for ethics
measures design in this study compared to using a
repeated measures design.
Do not refer to ethics in your answer.
Identification of advantage (can be generic) = 1
explanation (linked) = 1
(no) order effects; (generic advantage)
participants only experienced one IV level so would not get
bored sleeping at a lab / better at getting to sleep in an
unfamiliar place; (link)
(fewer) demand characteristics / participants only see one
condition so would have less idea about the aim of the
study; (generic advantage)
If they had dance and art classes, they would guess it would
affect sleep so would try to sleep / report better sleep (for
one condition); (link)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 26 of 27
10(b)(ii) Explain one disadvantage of using an independent 2 No marks for ethics
measures design in this study compared to using a
repeated measures design.
Do not refer to ethics in your answer.
Identification of disadvantage (can be generic) = 1
explanation (linked) = 1
(higher risk of) participant variables / individual differences;
(generic disadvantage)
the people in one group may all have been better sleepers
anyway; (link)
sample size needs to be bigger; (generic disadvantage)
so, need to get more people who are willing to report their
sleep / start or do different creative activities / stop doing
creative activities; (link)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 27 of 27
Official mark scheme pages: 26, 27 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-mj-22-q01
May/June 2025 · Paper 22 · Question 1 · 2 marks
1 Explain how the independent variable (IV) was 2 doodling and control = 0
operationalised in the study by Andrade (doodling).
IV = 1
Detail = 1
Doodling or no doodling: (IV) [doodling or not = minimum]
Whether Ps had paper and pen to doodle on/had paper with
doodling shapes on (or not); (detail)
Question Answer Marks Guidance
Official mark scheme pages: 8 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-mj-22-q02
May/June 2025 · Paper 22 · Question 2 · 3 marks
2(a) In the study by Hassett et al. (monkey toy preferences), 1
some of the data was displayed on graphs. This
included a comparison of time spent playing with
different types of toys by males and females.
Name the type of graph used to display this data.
Name = 1
Bar chart/graph [DEFINITIVE]
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 8 of 26
2(b) Explain why this graph was a suitable way to display 2
this data.
Explanation = 1
Detail or second explanation = 1
• Because male and female are discrete categories
• So, you can compare males and females/plush and
wheeled toys/data.
• Because the vertical/x axis would be males and
females/ plush and wheeled toys (explanation); and the
horizontal axis/y axis would be the time taken (detail) =
2
Question Answer Marks Guidance
Official mark scheme pages: 8, 9 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-mj-22-q03
May/June 2025 · Paper 22 · Question 3 · 8 marks
3(a)(i) In the study by Milgram, two types of data were 1
collected to demonstrate obedience. One example of
each type was:
• voltage reached when the participant refused to
continue
• comments from the participants.
For the example of ‘voltage reached when the
participant refused to continue’:
Identify this type of data.
Quantitative/objective data = 1 (DEFINITIVE)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 9 of 26
3(a)(ii) State the highest voltage at which all participants 1
obeyed.
300 (v) = 1 [DEFINITIVE]
Voltage level of 300 / e.g. obedient was ‘stopping after
300 V’
3(b)(i) For the example of ‘comments from the participants’ 1
Identify this type of data.
Qualitative/subjective data = 1 (definitive)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 10 of 26
3(b)(ii) Outline one of the comments made by a participant in 1 Repetition of bullet point from question = 0 [REP]
this study.
Accept as BOD “I don’t want to continue anymore’ as a
variant of ai ‘don’t want to go on’.
The teacher refused to give more shocks = 0 [REP]
Example of data from comments = 1 [does not have to be
verbatim]
• Participants asked if the victim was okay etc;
• I think he’s trying to communicate;
• Well, it’s not fair to shock the guy;
• Oh, I can’t go on with this;
• The guy is suffering in there;
• No, I don’t want to go on;
• I’m sorry I cannot do that to a man;
• It’ll hurt his heart;
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 11 of 26
3(c) Suggest one strength for each type of data in this study. 4
Strength of qualitative/quantitative data = 1
Link to the study for qualitative quantitative data = 1
Qualitative
• Qualitative data gives a lot of detail / more
informative/shows the thoughts/feelings behind their
actions; (strength)
• Participants showed their emotions in their comments;
(link)
Quantitative
• Quantitative data can be compared/analysed
easily/statistically; (strength)
• It was easy to see that most Ps stopped at 300 V; (link)
• The mode for disobedience was 300 V; (link)
• This quantitative data was objective; (strength)
• Participants with higher voltages were clearly more
obedient; (link)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 12 of 26
Official mark scheme pages: 9, 10, 11, 12 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-mj-22-q04
May/June 2025 · Paper 22 · Question 4 · 1 marks
4 In a study of learning, animals are taught to drop a small 1
object into a hole.
Suggest how ‘learning’ could be operationalised in this
study.
1 mark for operational definition.
Accept full definitions of learning i.e. the process of acquiring
of new skills /knowledge/behaviours through
experience/being taught. = 1
• Their accuracy of getting the small object in the hole
increases;
• How many small objects go into the hole on each trial;
• How fast they can get (10) small objects into the hole;
• How many minutes it takes before they get small
objects into the hole;
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 13 of 26
Official mark scheme pages: 13 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-mj-22-q05
May/June 2025 · Paper 22 · Question 5 · 4 marks
5 In some studies, scientific equipment is used to 4 An example alone is not detail. The detail must explain the
measure variables, such as brain activity or eye weakness.
movements.
No mark for just term /validity/reliability/demand
Suggest two weaknesses of using scientific equipment characteristics
to measure variables.
Weakness = 1 (2)
Detail = 1 ( 2)
• Validity/distress/harm; (weakness)
• People may be scared by the machines/being in an
enclosed space/the noises that the machines make
(weakness/detail)
• So their behaviour may not represent what they would
do in real life (detail)
• Machine could be faulty without the researcher knowing;
(weakness)
• This could lower validity if it is not measuring the correct
variable; (detail)
• this could lower reliability if it is measuring
inconsistently; (detail)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 14 of 26
Official mark scheme pages: 14 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-mj-22-q06
May/June 2025 · Paper 22 · Question 6 · 6 marks
6 Describe order effects, using any example(s). 6
1 mark for each definition/point of detail, up to a maximum of
2 for either order, fatigue or practice effects.
1 mark for each example, max 2 for either fatigue or
practice.
Examples can include examples from any studies (core
studies, other studies, candidate’s own studies).
Max 4 if no examples or if only about either fatigue or
practice.
Only 1 example needed to access 6 marks.
Order effects:
• are consequences of doing tests/tasks more than
once/repeating tasks; (definition)
• performance is affected by the sequence in which a
task is presented (definition)
• this will happen in a repeated measures design;
(detail) or in a longitudinal study; (detail) an be
controlled through counterbalancing (detail)
Fatigue effects:
• Performance on a task get worse with repetition; (detail)
• Often due to boredom; (detail or embedded example)
• It maybe that the participants are tired; (detail or could
be an example if embedded)
• practice effects:
• Performance improves when repeating a task; (detail)
• such as remembering the correct answers to a test;
(example)
• such as getting more skilled on a physical task;
(example)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 15 of 26
6 Study examples
• Dement & Kleitman: randomisation of REM and
nREM wakings for participant WD so less risk of
‘practise’ effects (example)
• Andrade (independent measures but)
counterbalancing used to avoid order effects between
the names and places tests; (example)
• Perry: rep measures repetitions in Expt 1/ Expt 2
(choosing rooms: distance between chairs etc)
(example);
• Hölzel: Rep measures - before and after eight-week
MBSR intervention – risk of order effects on FFMQ;
(example)
• Pozzulo: randomized the position of the target in
photos between participants so reduced order
effects/order of video clips varied to reduce order effects
(counterbalancing)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 16 of 26
Official mark scheme pages: 15, 16 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-mj-22-q07
May/June 2025 · Paper 22 · Question 7 · 10 marks
7(a)(i) Inma is observing one student at a time in the 1 Because having a headache might make them appear less
playground, to investigate how often each individual friendly = 0 [NAQ]
talks to other students. Inma is concerned about two
uncontrolled variables:
• a student being observed when few other students
are present
• a student with a headache may talk less.
Explain which one of these is a participant variable.
1 mark for explanation (no mark for identification)
(Having a headache might make students talk less)
• because a headache is internal / each individual is
different / individual differences / their body state
matters; (explanation)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 17 of 26
7(a)(ii) Suggest how Inma could limit the effect of the 2
participant variable.
1 mark for suggestion (can be solved by mitigation or
elimination)
1 mark for detail
Accept 2 brief ways for 2 marks (but must both be for the
same variable)
Participant variable: headache
• Do more than one observation of each person;
(suggestion) To make sure the data is representative of
each student; (detail)
• Ask students about their health before/after the
observation; (suggestion) and remove them from the
sample if they were unwell; (detail)
• Observe them after they’ve had treatment for their
headache (suggestion) To ensure that the results
obtained are representative of their true behaviour
(detail)
7(b)(i) Explain which one of these is a situational variable. 1
1 mark for explanation (no mark for identification)
(Being observed when there are few students around)
• because this is something external / in the
environment (explanation)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 18 of 26
7(b)(ii) Suggest how Inma could limit the effect of the 2
situational variable.
1 mark for suggestion (can be solved by mitigation or
elimination)
1 mark for detail
Accept 2 brief ways for 2 marks (but must both be for the
same variable)
Situational variable: few students around
• Limit the effect by collecting data when lots of students;
(suggestion) e.g. when there are more than 50 students
in the room; (detail) e.g. by using the end of lunchtime
when the students have eaten so are in the common
room; (detail)
• Record in the corridor or playground; (suggestion)
Because they are always crowded; (detail)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 19 of 26
7(c)(i) Inma is also concerned about the effect of social 2
desirability on her results.
Suggest one way that social desirability could affect
Inma’s results.
1 mark for identification of a possible source of social
desirability in this study (generic or linked)
1 mark for effect on results (linked)
Identification
• The participants might become aware of the aim;
(generic identification)
• The participants might become aware of the aim from
Inma only recording when the person talks; (linked
identification)
• The participants may want to look good/have a positive
reaction and so change their behaviour (generic
identification)
Linked effect on results
• This could lead them to talk more / less; (linked effect
on results)
• They might want to exaggerate the amount they talk;
(linked effect on results)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 20 of 26
7(c)(ii) Suggest how Inma might reduce the effect of social 2
desirability on her results.
1 mark for identification of a way to reduce social desirability
(generic)
1 mark for detailed link
Accept 2 brief ways for 2 marks (still need to be linked in
some way
• Hide the aim of the study; (generic) E.g. say they were
observing studying; (linked detail) So, it is not obvious
that it is a study about talking; (linked detail)
• Making herself a covert observer; (generic) E.g. by
pretending to be a new student / a cleaner; (linked
detail)
Question Answer Marks Guidance
Official mark scheme pages: 17, 18, 19, 20, 21 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-mj-22-q08
May/June 2025 · Paper 22 · Question 8 · 8 marks
8(a)(i) Kong is interviewing people about friendliness. He tells 1
his participants his study is about how they spend their
free time. Kong uses two measures of friendliness:
• timing the duration of eye contact between himself
and each participant
• asking the question ‘Are you excited or scared at
parties?’.
State which measure of central tendency Kong should
use to analyse his data from timing the duration of eye
contact.
1 mark for stating mean (definitive)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 21 of 26
8(a)(ii) State which measure of central tendency Kong should 1
use to analyse his data from asking participants ‘Are
you excited or scared at parties?’.
1 mark for stating mode (definitive)
8(b)(i) Kong’s friend says that both of his measures of 2 Accept any other reasonable applications
friendliness could be unethical, but for different
reasons.
Explain one reason why timing the duration of eye
contact could break one ethical guideline.
1 mark for identifying a reason, e.g. guideline
1 mark for linked detail related to the guideline.
• Consent; (guideline)
Kong said it was a study on free time and it isn’t; (link)
• Consent/deception (guideline)
The participants would be aware that they were answering
questions but would be unaware that they were being timed;
(link)
• Protection from harm (guideline)
The experimenter making eye contact and seeing how long
it is maintained may make the participant feel uncomfortable
(link)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 22 of 26
8(b)(ii) Explain one reason why asking participants ‘Are you 2 Accept any other reasonable applications
excited or scared at parties?’ could break one ethical
guideline.
You must use a different ethical guideline from your
answer to part (b)(i).
1 mark for identifying a different reason from b(i), e.g.
guideline but okay to explain the issue not state it
1 mark for linked detail related to the guideline.
• Protection from harm; (guideline)
Shy participants might find the question of whether they are
scared embarrassing; (link)
• Privacy; (guideline)
They might believe their partying habits were too personal;
(link)
• Consent/deception; (guideline)
Kong said it was a study on free time, and it isn’t; (link)
8(c) Kong will use opportunity sampling. 2
Outline what is meant by ‘opportunity sampling’, using
Kong’s study as an example.
1 mark for outline of opportunity sampling
1 mark for linked example (naming Kong is enough)
Outline
• Opportunity sampling is finding participants who are
available; (outline)
• Gathering nearby participants / by convenience;
(outline)
Linked example
• Kong could approach people in the street / at his
school/at a park; (linked example)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 23 of 26
Official mark scheme pages: 21, 22, 23 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-mj-22-q09
May/June 2025 · Paper 22 · Question 9 · 4 marks
9(a) Dr Shaw is planning a questionnaire about early 2
childhood memories.
There are two techniques for presenting a questionnaire
to participants.
Identify the two techniques.
1 mark for identifying 2 (definitive)
• Paper and pencil (accept ‘written’)
• Online (accept ‘by computer’)
9(b) For one of the questionnaire techniques that you 2
identified in part (a):
Suggest one reason why this would be appropriate for
Dr Shaw to use.
1 mark for reason suggested
1 mark for detail (linked)
Paper & pencil:
• May feel more private; (reason)
• Some childhood memories may be unpleasant; (linked
detail)
Online:
• Participants don’t have to bother to send it back/can
sent it out to a wider sample of people; (reason)
• So would get a more representative set of results about
childhood memories; (linked detail)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 24 of 26
Official mark scheme pages: 24 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-mj-22-q10
May/June 2025 · Paper 22 · Question 10 · 14 marks
10(a) Dr Brent works in a busy hospital. There are noises 10
Level The response:
from equipment and people on the wards. He thinks
there might be a link between two variables:
Level 5 • has all the required features, all with detail,
• how noisy wards are
9-10 with mostly appropriate terminology.
• the quality of patients’ sleep.
marks AND
• clearly applies knowledge of methodology
Describe how Dr Brent could conduct a study to
involved in planning this investigation.
investigate whether there is a correlation between how
noisy wards are and the quality of patients’ sleep.
Level 4 • has all the required features, but only some
7–8 of these with detail, with some appropriate
Do not describe sample/sampling technique or ethical
marks terminology.
issues/guidelines in your answer.
AND
• applies knowledge of methodology involved
To mark Q10a, create four ‘imaginary columns’ down one
in planning this investigation.
margin, using one column for each of the four required
features. Tick each feature (tick-a, tick-b, tick-c, tick-d)
Level 3 • has some of the required features with
when it appears, then underline the letter ( ) for detail.
5–6 detail / all of the required features with no
marks detail, and some appropriate terminology.
Use L1, L2, L3, L4, L5 at the end of the response to indicate
AND
the level.
• applies a basic knowledge of methodology
Use the table opposite to mark candidate responses to this
involved in planning this investigation.
question.
Level 2 • has at least two of the required features,
The four required features for this correlational study are:
3–4 with little appropriate terminology.
(a) two co-variables (quality of sleep & level of noise on
marks AND
wards).
• attempts to use knowledge of methodology
(b) measure of variable 1 (sleep quality – how measured
involved in planning this investigation.
i.e. questionnaire (scale)/EEG (time or stages)/interview
(rating)
(c) measure of variable 2 (noise on wards – how recorded
i.e. decibel counter/questionnaire/rating scale).
(d) nature of relationship (positive/negative, strong/weak
linked to variables) and how could be presented
(scattergraph)
Other appropriate responses should also be credited
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 25 of 26
10(a)
Level The response:
Level 1 • has one of the required features and uses
1–2 little appropriate terminology.
marks AND
• makes a limited attempt to use knowledge
of methodology involved in planning this
investigation, e.g. may not use the method
required by the question.
0 No creditable response.
marks
10(b) For one of the variables you have described in part (a): 4 If strength and limitation are about different variables, only
one gains credit. Mark both and credit the best.
Explain one practical strength and one practical
limitation in relation to this variable.
Identification of strength = 1
explanation (generic or linked) = 1
Part of procedure may relate to:
• operationalisation
• situational / participant variables
Accept other practical strengths
Identification of limitation = 1
explanation (generic or linked) = 1
Part of procedure may relate to:
• operationalisation
• situational / participant variables
Accept other practical limitations
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 26 of 26
Official mark scheme pages: 25, 26 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-mj-23-q01
May/June 2025 · Paper 23 · Question 1 · 3 marks
1(a) Outline the ethical guideline of ‘confidentiality’. 1
Outline = 1
• Keeping the identity of the participant a secret;
• Not revealing who the participants were;
• Keeping data secure from people not part of the study.
1(b) Explain one way that the ethical guideline of 2
confidentiality was followed in the study by Dement and
Kleitman (sleep and dreams).
Generic explanation = 1
Linked explanation = 2
• The names of the participants were not published =1
(generic)
• The participants’ names were replaced by their initials
= 2
• Only the Ps’ genders/occupations were known (so
they couldn’t be identified) = 2
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 8 of 27
Official mark scheme pages: 8 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-mj-23-q02
May/June 2025 · Paper 23 · Question 2 · 3 marks
2(a) Cognitive psychologists sometimes study people’s 1 ‘not being objective’ / ‘lacking objectivity’ = 0 [NAQ]
recall of past events.
Outline what is meant by ‘subjectivity’.
Outline = 1
• Seeing things from your own perspective;
• Being unable to take on external viewpoint;
• That your interpretation of behaviour is influenced by
your own/personal bias.
2(b) Suggest how subjectivity could be a problem when 2
studying people’s recall of past events.
Suggestion of problem = 1
Detail = 1
Suggestion
• Participants recall could be distorted (over time);
• Events in between could interfere with memories;
• New memories could overwrite old ones;
• A bad event later might affect the way an early memory
is remembered; (problem)
• The researcher may have a memory of the same event
Detail
• So, two people might recall the same event differently;
(deal)
• Which may mean they interpret the information given
differently to what the participant meant (detail)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 9 of 27
Official mark scheme pages: 9 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-mj-23-q03
May/June 2025 · Paper 23 · Question 3 · 7 marks
3(a) A study tested the relationship between average 3
number of hours of sleep per night and physical health.
The participants slept in their own homes. The results
showed a positive correlation.
Sketch a graph to show the results of this study. You
must label the axes.
2 axes with sleep and physical health (either way) = 1
positive correlation (line or points) = 1
‘Hours’ marked on the sleep axis = 1
Scale for health (words or numbers) = 1
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 10 of 27
3(b) Suggest two problems with collecting data about the 4
number of hours of sleep in this study.
Suggestion = 1 (2)
Link = 1 (2)
• Participants may lie; (suggestion)
• They may feel they have to say they have slept a long
time; (link)
• Their sleep may be disturbed; (suggestion)
E.g. by dogs/children at home; (link)
• The environment they sleep in can’t be controlled;
(suggestion)
E.g. how dark/noisy the (bed)room is; (link)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 11 of 27
Official mark scheme pages: 10, 11 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-mj-23-q04
May/June 2025 · Paper 23 · Question 4 · 2 marks
4 An investigation is testing the hypothesis ‘Intelligence 2
affects obedience’.
State whether this is a directional or a non-directional
hypothesis. Justify your answer.
NO mark for ‘non-directional’/two-tailed (it is for justification)
Justification = 1 (generic or specific)
Link = 1
(Non-directional because:)
• It only says that the results (DV) in the two conditions/
levels of the IV will be different; (generic justification =1)
• As it only says the levels of obedience (DV) will be
different based on the levels of intelligence (IV) (linked
justification = 2)
• The difference in obedience varies / differs with
intelligence; (linked justification = 2)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 12 of 27
Official mark scheme pages: 12 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-mj-23-q05
May/June 2025 · Paper 23 · Question 5 · 2 marks
5 In the study by Bandura et al. (aggression) a sample of 2
children was recruited from a university nursery. The
sampling technique is not stated.
Suggest why Bandura et al. may not have used
volunteer sampling.
Suggestion (of problem) = 1
Link = 1
• Bias/ lack of generalisability; = 1 (generic)
• An aggressive child’s parent may have been too
embarrassed to let their child take part; (linked problem)
= 2
• Parents of non-aggressive children might have been too
worried about consequences to let them take part = 2
(linked problem)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 13 of 27
Official mark scheme pages: 13 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-mj-23-q06
May/June 2025 · Paper 23 · Question 6 · 6 marks
6 Describe structured interviews and semi-structured 6
interviews, using any example(s).
1 mark for each definition/point of detail, up to a maximum of
2 for each term/concept.
1 mark for each example, max 2 for each term/concept.
Examples can include examples from any studies (core
studies, other studies, candidate’s own studies).
Max 4 if no examples or if only about one term/concept.
Only 1 example needed to access 6 marks.
Interviews
• self-report / a way to ask the participant questions;
• face-to-face/ telephone/ real time;
• can include open and closed questions; (no ‘example’
marks for open and closed)
structured:
• interview follows set questions/a script;
• may also have set dress;
• same tone of voice to standardise the interviewer;
semi-structured:
• interviews follow some questions the same;
• the interviewer can add follow up questions based on
the participant’s responses;
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 14 of 27
6 Examples
• Dement & Kleitman asked all Ps whether they had had
a dream but sometimes asked them more questions
about each dream;
• Saavedra and Silverman used interviews at the 6 and
12 month follow up period to ask about progress
(general interview example)
• Milgram conducted interviews one year after the study
had finished to see how the participants felt about the
study.
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 15 of 27
Official mark scheme pages: 14, 15 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-mj-23-q07
May/June 2025 · Paper 23 · Question 7 · 8 marks
7(a) Dr Jones is conducting a case study of a man, Kevan, 2 Accept questions from FFMQ
who has been practising mindfulness for 10 years.
Suggest two questions that Dr Jones could use in a
self-report (questionnaire or interview) that would
investigate different features of Kevan’s mindfulness.
Question relevant to mindfulness (2)
Can be open or closed
• Describe how you have learned mindfulness;
• Tick each of the following that you have done to help
with mindfulness: body scan, yoga, sitting meditation;
• Why do you think you find it so easy to enter a mindful
state?
• How easy do you think you find it to enter a mindful
state 0 (not at all easy) to 5 (very easy);
• How often do you practice mindfulness?
• What do you think is the most important part of your
mindfulness. routine
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 16 of 27
7(b)(i) Dr Jones wants to investigate whether Kevan has 2
changed in any other ways that could be linked to his
mindfulness. He plans to interview Kevan’s friends.
Suggest two changes in Kevan that his friends could
observe. These changes must be behavioural,
emotional or cognitive.
Change = 1 2
• Changes in his sleep/eating; (eating more/less, sleeping
better, less tired)
• Differences in sociability; (more friendly, happier)
• Behaviour at work; (happier at work, more efficient at
work, more motivated)
7(b)(ii) Explain why one of the changes that you suggested in 2
part (b)(i) would be difficult to investigate.
Explanation = 1
Detail = 1
• It would be difficult for friends to observe sleep
(explanation)
• As they usually do not live together and therefore would
not see it regularly; (detail)
• Friends could only observe behaviour outside of work
(explanation)
• So they wouldn’t be able to observe whether he is more
motivated at work/for work behaviour they would have
to ask not observe (detail)
• Friends would find it difficult to observe such changes
as kindness (explanation)
• As what one friend classes as kindness another
wouldn’t; (detail)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 17 of 27
7(c)(i) Dr Jones has several different questions on his self- 1 Ignore comments that the participant is not consistent
report that he has used repeatedly with similar case. He
has identified two problems:
• Problem 1 – When he studies the responses to one
item, he discovers that there are several different
ways to interpret the answers.
• Problem 2 – He is concerned that another item,
which was supposed to measure mindfulness, is
measuring happiness instead
Explain which problem relates to reliability.
Explanation of why the problem relates to reliability = 1
(generic or specific)
NO mark for ‘Item or identification of Problem 1/differences
in responses only.
Item 1/differences in responses)
• because (interpretation) not consistent; (justification)
7(c)(ii) Explain which problem relates to validity. 1
Explanation of why problem relates to validity = 1 (generic or
specific)
NO mark for ‘Item or Problem 2/measuring happiness’
Item 2/measuring happiness
• because not testing what it claims to; (justification)
• Item 1
• because the inconsistencies mean Dr Jones can’t be
sure that any of the interpretations are true/correct
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 18 of 27
Official mark scheme pages: 16, 17, 18 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-mj-23-q08
May/June 2025 · Paper 23 · Question 8 · 4 marks
8(a) Dr Mohan has proposed a study using monkeys in a 2
laboratory. A colleague has two suggestions to make
the study more ethical:
• suggestion 1: using animals which have less
complex brains
• suggestion 2: using videos of the animals’
behaviour in the natural habitat.
Explain why suggestion 1 would make Dr Mohan’s
study more ethical.
Explanation (e.g. generic, based on guideline) = 1
Detail = 1
• Species (guideline)
• Simpler animals will experience less distress; (detail)
• Distress (guideline)
• Simpler animals will suffer less / be less distressed;
(detail)
8(b) Explain why suggestion 2 would make Dr Mohan’s 2
study more ethical.
Explanation (e.g. generic, based on guideline) = 1
Detail = 1
Replacement (guideline);
• Using (undisturbed) wild animals will avoid use in labs;
(explanation/detail)
• (undisturbed) wild animals will be less distressed than
captive ones; (detail)
Distress (guideline);
• Wild animals will suffer less / be less distressed than
captive ones; (detail)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 19 of 27
Official mark scheme pages: 19 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-mj-23-q09
May/June 2025 · Paper 23 · Question 9 · 11 marks
9(a) Kioni is conducting a longitudinal study. Her aim is to 1
study changes in personal space throughout her
participants’ lives.
Kioni is deciding how frequently throughout her
participants’ lives she should test them.
Suggest a suitable frequency for Kioni to use to test her
participants throughout their lives.
Frequency = 1
Must give at least 3 measures over an average lifespan
Must not be more frequent than yearly
Each year;
Every two years from 15 – 40;
At 10, 20, 30, etc;
9(b) Suggest one way for Kioni to re-contact her participants 2
each time she needs to test them.
Appropriate way to contact = 1
Link/detail = 1
• Email (way)
to ask if they still want to be part of the study on personal
space (link)
• Phone (way)
to say she would like their personal space to be tested again
(link)
and ask them about their personal space preferences (link)
• Set up a group chat for the study and send a message
(way)
To say their yearly test on personal space is due (link)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 20 of 27
9(c)(i) Describe one way that Kioni could measure personal 2
space.
Basic/incomplete outline of way = 1
Detailed/complete outline of way = 2
e.g. one of three from Perry
Original paper-and-pencil CID:
• Participants circled on paper where they would want a
person approaching to stop = 1
• Participants imagined themselves in a room, and would
draw a circle/line where they wanted an approaching
person to stop – 2
computerised CID:
• When figure approaches, they press spacebar when
they want them to stop = 1
• Pp in centre of (virtual) ‘room’ and a figure approaches
them from different entrances, and they press a
spacebar to say when they would want them to stop =2
room choice test:
• Participants will choose between rooms with chairs at
different distances = 1
• Participants can be shown images of rooms with chairs
at different distances and would choose which one they
would use to (allegedly) talk to a person.
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 21 of 27
9(c)(ii) For the way that you described in part (ci): 2
Suggest one strength of measuring personal space in this
way.
Strength = 1
Detail = 1
Original paper-and-pencil CID:
• Simple to use; (strength)
• So can easily gather a large therefore representative
sample;
computerised CID:
• High ecological validity; (strength)
• Because static / real people move / we approach people
in space;
room choice test:
• Low social desirability / demand characteristics;
• Because distance decision is embedded in other tasks;
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 22 of 27
9(d)(i) Kioni is concerned that there may be variables other 2 Age / gender = 0 [NAQ]
than age that could affect an individual’s personal
space preferences.
Suggest two variables that could affect an individual’s
personal space, other than age and gender.
Variable affecting personal space (x2)
• Culture;
• Number of siblings;
• Mental health;
• Past experiences
• Personality (extrovert/introvert/empathy)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 23 of 27
9(d)(ii) For one of the variables that you suggested in part (di): 2
Suggest how this variable could affect an individual’s
personal space.
Effect of variable on personal space = 1
Detail = 1
Culture:
• Being close is less/more acceptable in some cultures;
(effect)
e.g. (From Beaulieu 2006) Anglo-Saxons> Asians>
Caucasians> Mediterranean’s> Latinos; (detail)
Number of siblings:
• People with siblings are used to being close to people;
(effect)
So would tolerate smaller personal spaces; (detail)
Mental health:
• Some disorders make closeness more easy/difficult;
(effect)
e.g. some people with Down’s syndrome accept closer
contact; (detail)
e.g. some people with autism find close contact difficult;
(detail)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 24 of 27
Official mark scheme pages: 20, 21, 22, 23, 24 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-mj-23-q10
May/June 2025 · Paper 23 · Question 10 · 14 marks
10(a) Isla is a teacher. She thinks that allowing students to 10
Level The response:
play with an object in class will improve attention. Isla is
unsure whether it will be better to play with a pen or
Level 5 • has all the required features, all with
play with a different object that is not used for writing.
9-10 detail, with mostly appropriate terminology.
marks • AND
Describe how Isla could conduct an experiment to test
• clearly applies knowledge of methodology
whether attention is better with a pen or an object that is
involved in planning an investigation.
not used for writing.
Level 4 • has all the required features, but only
Do not describe sample/sampling technique or ethical
7–8 some of these with detail, with some
issues/guidelines in your answer.
marks appropriate terminology.
AND
To mark Q10a, create four ‘imaginary columns’ down one
• applies knowledge of methodology
margin, using one column for each of the four required
involved in planning an investigation.
features. Tick each feature (tick-a, tick-b, tick-c, tick-d)
when it appears, then underline the letter ( ) for detail.
Level 3 • has some of the required features with
5–6 detail / all of the required features with
Use L1, L2, L3, L4, L5 at the end of the response to indicate
marks no detail, and some appropriate
the level.
terminology.
AND
Use the table opposite to mark candidate responses to this
• applies a basic knowledge of methodology
question.
involved in planning an investigation.
The four required features for this experiment are:
Level 2 • has at least two of the required features,
(a) independent variable: (different objects: pen and e.g.
3–4 with little appropriate terminology.
key ring, elastic bands – consider match of second object to
marks AND
‘pen’ – is it ‘playable with’?)
• attempts to use knowledge of
(b) dependent variable: (attention: operationalisation – in a
methodology involved in planning an
lesson; scores on test)
investigation.
(c) controls/standardisation; (classroom, lesson – e.g.
interest, length etc. At least two)
(d) experimental design: (repeated – counterbalancing? or
independent measures - how allocated?)
Other appropriate responses should also be credited.
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 25 of 27
10(a)
Level The response:
Level 1 • has one of the required features and uses
1–2 little appropriate terminology.
marks AND
• makes a limited attempt to use knowledge
of methodology involved in planning an
investigation, e.g. may not use the method
required by the question.
0 No creditable response.
marks
10(b)(i) For one feature of the experiment you have described in 2 No marks for: ethics or sampling technique
part (a):
If (bi) and (bii) are about different features, only one gains
Explain why that feature is a strength of the study. credit. Mark both and credit the best.
Do not refer to sampling or ethics in your answer.
Identification of = 1
explanation (generic or linked) = 1
Part of procedure may relate to:
• operationalisation
• situational / participant variables factors
• controls
• design / counterbalancing
Accept other strengths
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 26 of 27
10(b)(ii) Explain how that feature could be a weakness of the 2 No marks for: ethics or sampling technique
study.
If (b)(i) and (b)(ii) are about different features, only one
Do not refer to sampling or ethics in your answer. gains credit. Mark both and credit the best.
Identification of = 1
explanation (generic or linked) = 1
Part of procedure may relate to:
• operationalisation
• situational / participant variables factors
• controls
• design / counterbalancing
Accept other weaknesses
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 27 of 27
Official mark scheme pages: 25, 26, 27 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-on-21-q01
Oct/Nov 2025 · Paper 21 · Question 1 · 5 marks
1 A researcher is conducting an observation to investigate the study habits of students. The observation uses a
fixed list of behavioural categories.
1(a) Explain whether this observation is structured or unstructured. 1
1 mark for explanation of why it is structured
• Structured because there is a fixed list of behavioural categories;
• Structured because only set observations will be recorded;
1(b)(i) Suggest two behavioural categories that the researcher could use to observe the study habits of students. 2
Suggestion must be an observable/measurable category of student study habits = 1 [x2]
• time spent working;
• frequency of using books;
• note taking;
• Use of flashcards
• Studying alone
• Study with others
• Studying whilst listening to music
• Studying whilst doodling.
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 8 of 24
1(b)(ii) For one of the behavioural categories, you suggested in part (b)(i): 2
Suggest one methodological problem with using this category to observe the study habits of students.
Suggestion = 1
Link = 1
One problem with ‘number of books used’:
• The category may be underestimated/miscategorised; (suggestion)
• As a book could be on their phones/iPad (link)
One problem with ‘note taking/doodling’:
• Difficult to operationalise; (suggestion)
• When does one ‘note’ end and the next one start/as it’s difficult to state what is meant by a note/doodle/picture; (link)
One problem with studying whilst listening to music
• The category may be underestimated/miscategorised; (suggestion)
• as they may be listening to music on their headphones which the researcher will not hear/the researcher may assume
they are listening to music if they are wearing headphones (and they are not) (link)
One problem with studying with others/alone.
• The category may be underestimated/overestimated (suggestion)
• As they may be talking about things with others that are not to do with studying/ they may seem to be studying alone
but they are actually studying together using electronics (link).
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 9 of 24
Official mark scheme pages: 8, 9 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-on-21-q02
Oct/Nov 2025 · Paper 21 · Question 2 · 3 marks
2 In the study by Saavedra and Silverman (button phobia), imagery exposure was investigated. During this, the boy
reported a ‘severity rating’ for distress at three different ‘time frames.
2(a) State what was meant by the time frames 1, 2 and 3. 2
Two out of three correct time frames = 1
All three correct time frames = 2
Just one correct = 0
• Time frame 1: before (imagery exposure/therapy) session;
• Time frame 2: midway through (imagery exposure/therapy) session;
• Time frame 3: after the (imagery exposure/therapy) session;
2(b) Outline the change in severity rating from time frame 1 to time frame 3 when the boy had to imagine hundreds of 1
buttons falling on his body.
Outline of change = 1
the boy’s (distress) rating decreased over time/from timeframes 1-3
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 10 of 24
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9990-2025-on-21-q03
Oct/Nov 2025 · Paper 21 · Question 3 · 4 marks
3 The study by Hölzel et al. (mindfulness and brain scans) used participants who wanted to reduce their stress and
were able to have an MRI scan. There were several other inclusion criteria (reasons for being included in the
sample).
3(a) Outline two other inclusion criteria. 2
Inclusion criterion = 1 (x2)
• not taking any medications;
• Physically and psychological healthy
• no meditation classes in the past six months;
• no more than 4 classes in the past 5 years, or 10 classes in lifetime;
• 25-55 years old;
• commitment to attend all classes;
• commitment to do homework;
• No contraindications for MRi scanning such as metal implants/claustrophobia.
• All right-handed
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 11 of 24
3(b) For each of the inclusion criteria outlined in part (a): 2
Suggest why each inclusion criterion was important in this study, other than to ensure that the experimental and
control groups were similar.
Reason for criterion = 1 (x2)
not taking any medications:
• symptoms could reduce even without mindfulness;
• no meditation classes in the past six months:
• Classes could obscure brain changes due to study’s intervention/IV / MBSR; ensure that the changes were due to the
current MBSR and not the previous ones
no more than 4 classes in the 5 years/ 10 in life:
• Could obscure brain changes due to study’s intervention / MBSR;
• 25-55 years old: people
• younger/older adults could have brain differences/impairments.;
• commitment to attend classes/do homework:
• otherwise, difficult to tell is MBSR was cause;
No contraindications for MRi scanning
• As metal implants may cause harm to the participants
Right handedness
• To ensure that the differences were not due to differences in brain lateralisation.
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 12 of 24
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9990-2025-on-21-q04
Oct/Nov 2025 · Paper 21 · Question 4 · 4 marks
4 The study by Baron-Cohen et al. (eyes test) used an independent measures design.
4(a) Explain one strength of using an independent measures design. 2
Strength = 1
Detail/link = 1
Less chance of demand characteristics (than RM); (strength)
• Because the Ps only see one level of the IV; (detail)
Can be used to study fixed/pre-existing groups; (strength)
• As participants could not be both AS and control; (detail)
Eliminates the chance of order effects (strength)
• Because the Ps only see one level of the IV; (detail)
4(b) Explain one weakness of using an independent measures design. 2
Weakness = 1
Detail/link = 1
Hard to control the effect of individual differences; (weakness)
• Which would be a confounding variable which affects the DV (other than the IV); (detail)
• e.g. the AS/HFA group might have had less experience with people than the controls; (link)
You will need a bigger sample for IM than RM (weakness)
• which may be more difficult especially if it’s a hard-to-find sample (detail)
• this may lead to rising costs for the researcher which may lead to a smaller sample (and lower generalisability) (detail)
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9990-2025-on-21-q05
Oct/Nov 2025 · Paper 21 · Question 5 · 2 marks
5 Sketch a graph on the axes in Fig. 5.1 to show a negative correlation between ‘time spent watching television’ and 2
‘attention span’. You must label the axes.
Axis labels (both, either way round) = 1
Negative correlation (line/points) = 1
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 14 of 24
Official mark scheme pages: 14 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-on-21-q06
Oct/Nov 2025 · Paper 21 · Question 6 · 6 marks
6 Describe measures of central tendency, using any example(s). 6
1 mark for each definition/point of detail, up to a maximum of 2 for each term/concept.
1 mark for each example, max 2 for each term/concept (up to a maximum of 4).
Examples can include examples from any studies (core studies, other studies, candidate’s own studies).
Max 4 if no examples or if only about one term/concept.
Only 1 example needed to access 6 marks.
Measures of central tendency:
• Way to find typical / average of data set / single number to describe the data; (description)
• e.g. mean / median / mode; (description)
description of how to calculate mode = 1 (max)
description of how to calculate median = 1 (max)
description of how to calculate mean = 1 (max)
Examples
Andrade mean of monitoring/number names recalled; (core study)
Bandura mean aggression scores; (core study)
Baron-Cohen mean eyes test/AQ/IQ/age; (core study)
Dement & Kleitman mean nightly awakenings/sleep time; (core study)
Fagen mean offers by elephants on each behavioural task/ mean percent correct (pass rate) for all elephants for all tasks;
median passing scores given for behaviours in sequences (core study)
Hassett mean total time and mean frequency with plush and wheeled toys for males and females / mean dominance rank;
Hölzel means from MBSR: homework time/body scan practice/yoga/ sitting meditation;
Milgram mean percent students saying Ps would reach 450V / mean and mode for interview of How painful?/
Perry means of IRI/empathy score/percent distances in CID and choosing rooms for OT and placebo groups;
Piliavin mean number of people per car / people in critical area / number of comments (for white v Black, Cane v Drunk,
before v after 70 sec)/ mean and median latencies);
Pozzulo mean correct identifications (for human v cartoon, adult v child);
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 15 of 24
Official mark scheme pages: 15 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-on-21-q07
Oct/Nov 2025 · Paper 21 · Question 7 · 6 marks
7 Professor March is interested in interpersonal distance. He has met Dennis, who needs a large interpersonal
distance. Dennis has agreed to Professor March conducting a case study about him using a questionnaire.
7(a) Suggest why Dennis may prefer Professor March to use a questionnaire rather than a face-to-face interview. 1
Suggestion = 1
• Professor March would need to be too close;
• Dennis does not need to be in the same room as Professor March;
• Because Dennis may get distressed/nervous about Professor March being too close for a face-to-face interview.
7(b) Suggest two examples of questions that Professor March could use to collect data about the need Dennis has for a 2
large interpersonal distance.
Description = 1 x2
e.g. Describe what people you cannot tolerate close to you;
e.g. Describe why you cannot tolerate people close to you;
e.g. How do you feel when someone gets close to you?
e.g. Rate how you felt when we met 0 (okay) to 5 (bad);
e.g. Use a (paper-based) CIDS; mark on lines for comfortable interpersonal distance;
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 16 of 24
7(u) Suggest one problem that Professor March could have when using a questionnaire to study Dennis. 3
Identification of problem = 1 (i.e. linked)
Detail = 2 (generic or linked)
• Prof March may need to hand him the questionnaire; (problem)
• Which could make him uncomfortable /nervous; e.g. (detail)
• and affect his responses on to the questions; (detail)
• reducing validity; (detail)
• Dennis won’t like being given paper for the CIDs; (problem)
• Because it could make them uncomfortable /nervous; (detail)
• This could affect his responses on the task; (detail)
• reducing validity; (detail)
• It may be more may make it more likely that Dennis will give socially desirable answers; (problem)
• especially given the topic area is sensitive as it is about not wanting to get close (detail)
• and the researcher does not see the body language so won’t know they are lying (unlike face-to-face interview) (detail)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 17 of 24
Official mark scheme pages: 16, 17 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-on-21-q08
Oct/Nov 2025 · Paper 21 · Question 8 · 6 marks
8 Dr East is observing children playing. She is a participant observer. The children have met Dr East before and
believe she is a playground assistant who watches them when their teachers have lunch.
8(a) Suggest one strength of using participant observation in this study. 2
Suggestion of strength = 1
Link (to play) = 1
‘Can get close to /interact with the children (strength)
• So is more likely to understand their play/games; (link)
She will be aware of the children’s mood; (strength)
• She will know whether they are enjoying playing/games; (link)
She can approach the children; (strength)
• So can see what they are playing with; (link)
She can easily talk to the children; (strength)
• So can ask the children what they are playing; (link)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 18 of 24
8(b) Suggest one advantage of Dr East using a non-participant observation compared to a participant observation. 2
Suggestion of advantage of non-participant = 1
Linked (to play) detail/justification = 1
The children will be unaware she is there; (advantage)
• So, their play/games will be more natural; (link)
There is distance between the researcher and the children/the researcher does not get involved in the situation (advantage)
• So, their play/games will be more natural (link)
She could use a video to record the children’s behaviour; (advantage)
• Which she can use to accurately analyse the children’s play (link)
She could use a second observer; (advantage)
• Which means comparisons can be made to ensure they have the same results about children’s play (link)
8(c) Explain one ethical problem caused by the children believing that Dr East is a playground assistant. 2
Explanation of problem = 1
Detail = 1
• They are being misled / lied to (because they are told she is a playground assistant); (problem/detail)
• Deception; (problem/detail)
• So cannot give consent; (detail)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 19 of 24
Official mark scheme pages: 18, 19 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-on-21-q09
Oct/Nov 2025 · Paper 21 · Question 9 · 10 marks
9 Dr Okami is using animals in an experiment to study the effects of noise on learning. In this study, the animals will
learn to run through narrow tunnels and will meet other animals. Each animal will either run through the tunnels
with noise or run through the tunnels without noise.
9(a) Explain whether the experimental design of Dr Okami’s study is repeated measures or independent measures. 1
Explanation of why independent measures = 1 (generic or specific)
• (Independent measures) because each animal only does one level of the IV/ either with or without noise (not both);
(explanation)
9(b) The independent variable is ‘with noise or without noise’ and the dependent variable is ‘learn to run through the 2
tunnels.
Define what is meant by the terms ‘independent variable’ and ‘dependent variable’.
Independent variable ……….
Dependent variable ………
Generic definition of IV = 1
Generic definition of DV = 1
Marks are for definitions, not examples
Independent variable is manipulated by the researcher to create two (or more) different conditions/levels;
Dependent variable is measured to see effect of IV;
9(c) Dr Okami needs to follow ethical guidelines in relation to animals.
9(c)(i) Dr Okami will use reinforcement to help the animals to learn to run through the narrow tunnels. 1
Suggest one way that the animals could be reinforced. Your answer must be ethical.
Way to reinforce = 1
• Deprivation then a reward;
• Food;
• Water;
• Treat
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 20 of 24
9(c)(ii) Dr Okami needs to follow the guideline of ‘species’. 4
Explain two ways that Dr Okami’s choice of animal will be affected by following this guideline.
Explanation = 1 (x2)
link to stem = 1 (x2)
Choose a small animal/do not choose a large animal; (explanation re. guideline)
• as tunnels are narrow / animals need to pass; (link to stem)
Choose a social species/animal; (explanation re. guideline)
• as the animals will meet/might be aggressive; (link to stem)
9(c)(iii) Dr Okami needs to follow the guideline of ‘minimising harm’. 2
Suggest why this guideline is relevant to Dr Okami’s study.
Suggestion = 1
Second suggestion or detail = 1
• Noise could be distressing / cause pain;
• Other social animals could be distressing / cause pain;
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 21 of 24
Official mark scheme pages: 20, 21 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-on-21-q10
Oct/Nov 2025 · Paper 21 · Question 10 · 14 marks
10 Dr Aster is interviewing people about their exciting experiences. He is interested in people’s feelings about
different types of exciting experience.
10(a) Describe how Dr Aster could conduct a study using an interview to investigate people’s feelings about different 10
types of exciting experience.
Do not describe sample/sampling technique or ethical issues/guidelines in your answer.
To mark Q10(a), create four ‘imaginary columns’ down one margin, using one column for each of the four required features.
Tick each feature (tick-a, tick-b, tick-c, tick-d) when it appears, then underline the letter ( ) for detail.
Use L1, L2, L3, L4, L5 at the end of the response to indicate the level.
Use the table below to mark candidate responses to this question.
The four required features for this interview are:
(a) format: (description of structured/unstructured/semi-structured)
(b) question format (open / closed questions, fillers/quantitative/qualitative)
(c) examples of questions (at least two)
(d) question scoring / interpretation (e.g. use of numerical scoring / measures of central tendency / analysis of
qualitative data)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 22 of 24
10(a)
Level The response:
Level 5 • has all the required features, all with detail, with mostly appropriate terminology.
9-10 marks AND
• clearly applies knowledge of methodology involved in planning an investigation.
Level 4 • has all the required features, but only some of these with detail, with some appropriate
7–8 marks terminology.
AND
• applies knowledge of methodology involved in planning an investigation.
Level 3 • has some of the required features with detail / all of the required features with no detail, and some
5–6 marks appropriate terminology.
AND
• applies a basic knowledge of methodology involved in planning an investigation.
Level 2 • has at least two of the required features, with little appropriate terminology.
3–4 marks AND
• attempts to use knowledge of methodology involved in planning an investigation.
Level 1 • has one of the required features and uses little appropriate terminology.
1–2 marks AND
• makes a limited attempt to use knowledge of methodology involved in planning an investigation,
e.g. may not use the method required by the question.
0 marks No creditable response.
Other appropriate responses should also be credited.
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 23 of 24
10(b) For one part of the procedure, you described in (a):
10(b)(i) Describe one practical/methodological strength of this part of the procedure. 2
Do not refer to sampling or ethics in your answer.
Identification of practical strength of one part of the procedure= 1
explanation (generic or linked) = 1
Part of procedure may relate to:
• operationalisation / a specific question content
• question content / a specific question content
• question format / a specific question format
• controls / a specific control
Accept other practical influences on validity or reliability
10(b)(ii) Describe one practical/methodological weakness of this part of the procedure. 2
Do not refer to sampling or ethics in your answer.
Identification of practical weakness of one part of the procedure= 1
explanation (generic or linked) = 1
Part of procedure may relate to:
• operationalisation / a specific question content
• question content / a specific question content
• question format / a specific question format
• controls / a specific control
Accept other practical influences on validity or reliability
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 24 of 24
Official mark scheme pages: 22, 23, 24 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-on-22-q01
Oct/Nov 2025 · Paper 22 · Question 1 · 2 marks
1(a) Outline what is meant the term ‘fatigue effect’. 1
Outline = 1
• Poor performance due to repetition;
• Worse scores/performance declines due to boredom;
1(b) Suggest one fatigue effect that could have occurred in the study by Hölzel et al. (mindfulness and brain scans). 1
Linked suggestion = 1
• Bored with mindfulness exercises (and stopped / not try as hard);
• Stopped doing the homework (before end of study);
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 8 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-on-22-q02
Oct/Nov 2025 · Paper 22 · Question 2 · 3 marks
2 Data can be qualitative or quantitative.
2(a) Outline what is meant by ‘qualitative data’. 1
Outline = 1
• Data that is descriptive / in depth / detailed / gives insight;
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 8 of 24
2(b) Describe the qualitative data that was collected from one of the following studies: 2
• Milgram (obedience)
• Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans).
Identification of qualitative data from Milgram/Piliavin = 1
Detail/second ID = 1 (example of comments, how data used)
Milgram:
• What people said about feelings when shocked; (ID)
• How people reacted (verbally) when they shocked the learner (ID)
• What people said after about (not) regretting having participated; (ID)
• For example, “I do not think this is humane” (detail/example)
Piliavin:
• Comments people made about the victims; (identification)
• Saying they were scared of the drunk/that they were not strong enough to help; (detail)
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Official mark scheme pages: 8, 9 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-on-22-q03
Oct/Nov 2025 · Paper 22 · Question 3 · 2 marks
3 In the study by Fagen et al. (elephant learning) behaviours such as ‘trunk here’, ‘trunk up’ and ‘bucket’ were 2
recorded using a structured observation.
Explain one strength of using a structured observation in this study.
Strength = 1 (generic or linked)
Detail = 1 (generic or linked)
The response must be linked at least once (either in the strength or detail) to earn full credit (2 marks)
Improved reliability (inter or intra-observer); (generic strength)
• As observations such as the two trunk positions can be compared to ensure that both agreed (linked detail)
Observers would not get distracted by the elephant’s other behaviour/only focus on the elephant behaviours that are
relevant to the study; (linked strength)
• Making the observations more valid; (generic detail)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 10 of 24
Official mark scheme pages: 10 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-on-22-q04
Oct/Nov 2025 · Paper 22 · Question 4 · 6 marks
4 In the study by Pozzulo et al. (line-ups):
4(a) There was a sample of children and a sample of adults. In both samples there were some males and some females. 2
Suggest why it was important that both males and females were present in both samples.
Suggestion for why both genders = 1
Detail / suggestion for why both groups = 1
Suggestions
• Males and females might differ in their recall/ response to social factors / knowledge of cartoons; (suggestion for both
genders)
• It could hide the effect of age / difference between adults and children (if there were more/less males/females in one
group); (why both groups)
• It will mean that you are able to generalise to males and females”
Detail
• This would be a confounding factor / would affect the DV; (detail)
• As males and females may react differently to the situation (and therefore you need to have both to ensure that is
measured/can apply the results to both) (detail)
4(b) The standard deviation for the age of the adults was larger than the standard deviation for the age of the children.
4(b)(i) Describe what is meant by a ‘standard deviation’. 2
Basic outline = 1 Detail = 1
No link to the study needed for full marks.
• A measure of spread / variation / dispersion = 1
• (calculated as) the (average) difference from the mean = 1
• A measure a spread/variation (looking at difference) from the mean = 2
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 11 of 24
4(b)(ii) Explain one reason why the standard deviation for the age of the adults was larger than the standard deviation for 2
the age of the children.
Simple explanation = 1
Detailed explanation = 2
There must be a link for full marks
• The spread of age in the adults was greater than the spread in children; (explanation)
• Because the children had to be young, so aged 4–7, whereas there are decades of adulthood; (justification)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 12 of 24
Official mark scheme pages: 11, 12 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-on-22-q05
Oct/Nov 2025 · Paper 22 · Question 5 · 6 marks
5 Describe semi-structured interviews and unstructured interviews, using any example(s). 6
1 mark for each definition/point of detail, up to a maximum of 2 for each term/concept.
1 mark for each example, max 2 for each term/concept.
Examples can include examples from any studies (core studies, other studies, candidate’s own studies).
Max 4 if no examples or if only about one term/concept.
Only 1 example needed to access 6 marks.
interviews generally:
• self-report / a way to ask the participant questions directly;
• face-to-face/ telephone/ real time;
• can include open and closed questions (can be credited only once in response);
• Milgram used interviews to debrief his participants after the main study had finished.
• Pozzulo et al. used interviews with the children.
semi-structured:
• interviews follow some set/fixed questions;
• the interviewer can add some questions in response to the participant’s responses;
• can include open and closed questions (can be credited only once in the response);
Examples
• e.g. Dement and Kleitman used a semi-structured interview when asking participants a fixed question about whether
they dreamed or not = 1 (brief example)
• Dement & Kleitman asked all Ps whether they had had a dream and if they did, they would follow up and ask them
more questions about each dream = 2 (detailed example)
• Saavedra and Silverman used interviews with both the boy and his mother = 1 (brief example)
• Saavedra and Silverman used interviews with both the boy and his mother to ensure that the boy met the criteria for a
diagnosis with a specific phobia = 2 (detailed example)
unstructured:
• interview does not have set questions;
• questions follow on from participant’s answers;
• so, the interviewer can pursue lines of interest/thought;
• can include open and closed questions (can be credited only once in the response);
• Saavedra and Silverman asked the boy and mother about stressful life events that may have triggered the onset of
the phobia.
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 13 of 24
Official mark scheme pages: 13 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-on-22-q06
Oct/Nov 2025 · Paper 22 · Question 6 · 10 marks
6 Dr Raj is conducting a case study to investigate an elderly man, who he refers to as ‘Mr J’, who has an exceptional
memory.
6(a) Dr Raj is considering the ethics of his study.
6(a)(i) Explain one ethical reason Dr Raj refers to his participant as Mr J. 2
Reason: confidentiality = 1 [definitive]
Linked explanation of reason = 1
confidentiality; (guideline)
• Because Mr J/the elderly man should not be identifiable; (link)
• His memories might make him recognisable; (link)
6(a)(ii) Mr J can recall most of his life events, including negative ones. 2
Explain the ethical guideline Dr Raj should follow when studying Mr J because he can remember negative life
events.
Reason: Protection from (psychological) harm = 1
Linked explanation/detail of reason = 1
Protection from (psychological) harm; (guideline)
• Because negative events are distressing; (linked detail)
• Mr J may become upset by his negative memories; (linked detail)
Right to withdraw (guideline)
• Because if he feels uncomfortable talking about negative events he can choose to leave (linked detail)
Privacy (guideline)
• Because negative life events may be very personal and he may not want to disclose them (linked detail)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 14 of 24
6(b) Dr Raj wants to triangulate his data. 2
Explain what is meant by triangulation, using Dr Raj’s study as an example.
Explanation (generic/linked) = 1
Detail/link = 1
To get 2 marks there must be a link to the study.
Using more than one technique to collect data (can be both between or within methods); (explanation)
• To check Dr Raj gets the same findings about memory; (link)
• Dr Raj could use interviews and a questionnaire; (link)
• Dr Raj could use a questionnaire and then use open questions to gain qualitative data and also ranked-scale questions
to gain qualitative data
6(c) Explain two weaknesses of case studies. 4
Explanation = 1 [2]
Detail (may be linked or generic) = 1 [2]
One participant so low generalisability of findings; (weakness)
• Especially as they tend to focus on rare instances; (generic detail)
• As case studies tend to be of one person/group (who have unique characteristics) (generic detail)
• Not even all exceptional people will be the same as Mr J; (linked detail)
Researcher gets to know participant well/forms an attachment with the participant (weakness)
• This may lead to the researcher writing down responses that make the participant ‘look good’/ignoring any wrong
answers the participants give (generic detail)
After working with them intensely, participants will get to know the researcher well/like the researcher leading to high social
desirability; (weakness)
• The P tries to ‘look good’ as the researcher’s opinion will matter to them; (linked detail)
As the study is in depth the participant may get to know a lot about study; (weakness)
• This may lead to demand characteristics such as Mr J trying really hard to remember; (linked detail)
Ethical issues are also creditworthy i.e. distress/confidentiality/ right to withdraw
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 15 of 24
Official mark scheme pages: 14, 15 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-on-22-q07
Oct/Nov 2025 · Paper 22 · Question 7 · 7 marks
7 Lorna has noticed that children often talk to their toys. She thinks this may be related to the children’s vocabulary
size (how many words they know). Lorna is planning a correlational study to investigate whether there is a
relationship between how often a child talks to their toys and the child’s vocabulary size.
7(a) Suggest one way that Lorna could measure a child’s vocabulary size. 1
Way to measure vocabulary size = 1
• Observe/ count different words used;
• Observe /how many/frequency different words used (in 1 hour);
• Count number of different words used in school exercise book;
• Listen to them talking, count how many different words used;
7(b) Lorna must ask the children and their parents/guardians for consent to participate in her study.
7(b)(i) Explain why it is important to ask both the children and their parents/guardians for consent in this study. 2
Explanation = 1 (understand study AND agree)
Link to both children and parents (likely to be partly implicit) = 1
Consent allows participants to (have enough information to) understand the study and agree to it; (explanation)
• (Parents must agree as) children cannot give valid consent; (link)
• As children can’t fully understand / too young (so need parents too); (link)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 16 of 24
7(b)(ii) Suggest one suitable way that Lorna could ask for consent from the children. 2
Suggestion of a child friendly generic request/question asking for consent = 1
Suggestion of a child friendly way of asking for consent linked to the study = 2
• Asking them if they agree to join/take part in a study using simple language (generic suggestion) = 1
• Asking them if they agree to join/take part in a study (generic suggestion) and then show them a child friendly video
about what they will be doing with the toys/words (linked detail) = 2
• Will you come and talk to me for a while then play with the toys?’ (linked suggestion) = 2
• Would you like to come and play a game word game with me and my toys? (linked suggestion) = 2
• Lorna could show them a child friendly video with children playing happily with toys and then ask them if they agree to
do the same = 2
7(c) Lorna finds a positive correlation. She concludes that vocabulary size in children is increased by talking to toys 2
more often.
Explain why this conclusion is not correct.
Generic/linked Explanation = 1
Generic/linked detail = 1
(response must be linked at least once for full 2 marks)
She cannot say it is a causal relationship; (generic explanation)
• Therefore, she could only conclude that vocabulary size and number of toys are related; (linked detail)
A third factor could affect both vocabulary and talking play; (linked explanation /detail)
• e.g. parenting could affect both vocabulary and talking play; (linked detail)
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 16, 17 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-on-22-q08
Oct/Nov 2025 · Paper 22 · Question 8 · 10 marks
8 Dr Chand is going to measure how much adults want to participate in social activities, such as team sports or
attending a festival.
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 17 of 24
8(a) Dr Chand wants to collect quantitative data about how much adults want to participate in social activities. He can 2
use the methods of questionnaires or interviews.
Suggest two ways that Dr Chand could collect this data using one or both of these methods.
1. …
2. …
Suggestion = 1 [2]
Answer does not have to produce a score out of 15 to earn credit, the ‘total’ in the Q could be a composite score.
• A (closed) question ‘How likely are you join in social activities, on a scale (of 0 (I wouldn’t) to 15 (I definitely would)’);
• An (open) question ‘Describe how much you like or dislike joining in with social activities’ and score the answer (on a
scale of 1–15);
8(b) For one of the ways of collecting data you suggested in part (a):
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 18 of 24
8(b)(i) ‘Explain one way this method of collecting data is valid. 2
Strength = 1
Detail = 1
Questionnaire:
Can be done online/through the post (strength);
• Therefore, if they are embarrassed about not joining in, they may be more honest (detail);
• unlike interviews which may be face to face and subject to social desirability bias (leading to less honest answers)
(comparative detail)
Interview:
Can explain the nature of the question if the participant does not understand (strength);
• whereas a questionnaire can only help with general printed instructions (leading to answers not related to the aim)
(comparative detail)
• means that the response given will be directly related to the question asked/the information the researcher wants to
find out (detail).
Closed Q:
Quantitative data is achieved so easy to analyse/is more objective; (strength)
• Can just produce a score that can be averaged/comparisons can be made between different groups i.e. ages (detail)
• meaning it is not subject to researcher bias or interpretation (lowering validity); (detail)
Open Q:
Allows opportunity to give individual/detailed responses; (strength)
• So, people with different reasons/feelings can express themselves more allowing a greater insight into their feelings;
(detail)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 19 of 24
8(b)(ii) Explain one way this method of collecting data is not valid. 2
Weakness = 1
Detail = 1
Questionnaire:
Ps may not understand the questions being asked (weakness);
• Whereas an interviewer would be able to explain (comparative detail)
• meaning that the responses given may not be directly related to the question asked (general detail);
Interview:
If the interview is face to face the Ps might lie/may give socially desirable answers (weakness);
• e.g. as they many want to appear more sociable as they feel this is more socially acceptable;
• Closed Q:
Limits responses (to a number/to fixed choices); (weakness)
• Ps may want to say ‘in situation X I would be willing’; (detail)
• Meaning that the questionnaire answers may not have the choice that is more relevant to the desired answer for the
participant (detail)
Open Q:
The scoring of a response is subject to the interpretation by researcher; (weakness)
• Comments may imply willingness and therefore they may give it a higher score, but that is not what the participant
meant; (detail)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 20 of 24
8(c) When Dr Chand conducts his study, he gives each adult a score out of 15 for how much they want to participate in 4
social activities. He divides the adults into four different age groups and finds an average willingness to participate
score for each group. These averages are shown in Table 8.1.
Age groups (years)
20–29 30–39 40–49 50–59
Average willingness to
14 10 7 12
participate score
Plot a suitable graph of Dr Chand’s data. You must label the axes.
Can achieve marks for any of the following but max 3 if the bars are not touching even if heights are correct.
x-axis label: ‘Age group (in years)’; = 1
x-axis units: 20–29 etc; = 1
y-axis label: willingness to participate; = 1
y-axis units: numbers up to at least 14; = 1
bar heights correct and touching
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 21 of 24
Official mark scheme pages: 17, 18, 19, 20, 21 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-on-22-q09
Oct/Nov 2025 · Paper 22 · Question 9 · 14 marks
9 Dr Gul is investigating whether people focus their attention more on brightly coloured advertisements than on less
brightly coloured advertisements. He is planning to conduct a field experiment on a train.
9(a) Describe how Dr Gul could conduct a field experiment to investigate the effect of colour brightness on how much 10
train passengers focus their attention on advertisements.
Do not describe sample/sampling technique or ethical issues/ guidelines in your answer.
To mark Q10(a), create four ‘imaginary columns’ down one margin, using one column for each of the four required features.
Tick each feature (tick-a, tick-b, tick-c, tick-d) when it appears, then underline the letter ( ) for detail.
Use L1, L2, L3, L4, L5 at the end of the response to indicate the level.
Use the table below to mark candidate responses to this question.
The four required features for this field experiment are:
(a) independent variable: (ads bright v dull coloured)
(b) dependent variable: (attention: operationalisation)
(c) controls/standardisation; (advert size/content on the advert/time of day/route of the train. At least two)
(d) experimental design: (probably independent measures/ knowledge of what this means)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 22 of 24
9(a)
Level The response:
Level 5 • has all the required features, all with detail, with mostly appropriate terminology.
9–10 marks AND
• clearly applies knowledge of methodology involved in planning this investigation.
Level 4 • has all the required features, but only some of these with detail, with some appropriate
7–8 marks terminology.
AND
• applies knowledge of methodology involved in planning this investigation.
Level 3 • has some of the required features with detail / all of the required features with no detail, and
5–6 marks some appropriate terminology.
AND
• applies a basic knowledge of methodology involved in planning this investigation.
Level 2 • has at least two of the required features, with little appropriate terminology.
3–4 marks AND
• attempts to use knowledge of methodology involved in planning this investigation.
Level 1 • has one of the required features and uses little appropriate terminology.
1–2 marks AND
• makes a limited attempt to use knowledge of methodology involved in planning this investigation,
e.g. may not use the method required by the question.
0 marks No creditable response.
Other appropriate responses should also be credited.
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 23 of 24
9(b) Explain two strengths of the study you described in part (a). 4
Do not refer to sampling or ethics in your answer.
Identification of strength = 1 (x2)
explanation (generic or linked) = 1 (x2)
Part of procedure may relate to:
• operationalisation
• situational / participant variables factors
• controls
• design / counterbalancing
Accept other practical influences on validity
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 24 of 24
Official mark scheme pages: 22, 23, 24 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-on-23-q01
Oct/Nov 2025 · Paper 23 · Question 1 · 2 marks
1(a) Define what is meant by ‘counterbalancing’. 1
Outline = 1
• Counterbalancing is) having two groups of Ps who do tasks / conditions / levels of the IV in opposite orders; (definition)
• When one group do condition A then condition B the other do condition B then condition A (ABBA)
1(b) Outline one reason why counterbalancing is important in experiments. 1
Reason for importance = 1
• To reduce order effects; (importance)
Question Answer Marks
Official mark scheme pages: 8 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-on-23-q02
Oct/Nov 2025 · Paper 23 · Question 2 · 1 marks
2 State whether the hypothesis ‘attention will be better when eating than when not eating’ is a: 1
• directional hypothesis
• non-directional hypothesis
• null hypothesis.
Correct choice = 1 [definitive]
• directional hypothesis
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 8 of 23
Official mark scheme pages: 8 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-on-23-q03
Oct/Nov 2025 · Paper 23 · Question 3 · 4 marks
3 In the study by Fagen et al. (elephant learning), there were several stages to the training process.
3(a) Explain why there was no fixed length of time for the elephants’ training. 2
Basic explanation = 1 (can be generic)
Detail = 1 (Response must contain a link for 2 marks)
Individual differences; (generic explanation)
• one had to be retrained because she preferred saline (to water); (linked detail)
• All elephants will have different learning rates / different needs (linked detail)
• the trainers knew the elephants, so learning time was tailored towards their elephant; (detail)
3(b) Some behavioural tasks were more difficult than others for the elephants to learn. This difference in difficulty was 2
called ‘relative difficulty’ in the study.
Explain how Fagen et al. measured relative difficulty.
Basic explanation = 1 (can be generic)
Detail = 1 (Response must contain a link for 2 marks)
Total number of offers/cues which had to be given (to pass a behavioural test); (basic explanation)
• The average of the totals for all the elephants was used; (detail)
• ‘Average number of offers/cues’ = only 1 mark
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 9 of 23
Official mark scheme pages: 9 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-on-23-q04
Oct/Nov 2025 · Paper 23 · Question 4 · 4 marks
4 Hölzel et al. (mindfulness and brain scans) measured changes in mindfulness using the 39‑item five facet
mindfulness questionnaire (FFMQ).
4(a) Explain one strength of measuring the change in mindfulness in this way. 2
Strength = 1 (generic or specific)
Linked detail = 1
• High (internal) reliability; (generic strength)
• Produced objective/quantitative data (generic strength)
• Five subscales are consistent with each other; (specific strength)
• Meaning that a P with high score on one scale would have a high score on the others; ORA (specific detail)
• Meaning that the scores before and after the study can be easily compared/analysed to see whether scores had risen
(specific detail)
4(b) Explain one weakness of measuring the change in mindfulness in this way. 2
Weakness = 1 (generic or specific)
Linked detail = 1 (generic or specific)
Weakness
(It’s a questionnaire) so people might lie / give socially desirable answers; (generic weakness)
Fatigue effect; (generic weakness)
39 questions items is a lot, Ps might get bored; (specific weakness)
Practice effect; (generic weakness)
Detail
• So, their answers to the questions may not reflect their level of mindfulness lowering validity;
• So, they might not answer the questions at the end of the questionnaire/ towards the end of the study;
• People might give the same answers about mindfulness even when they are more / less mindful;
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 10 of 23
Official mark scheme pages: 10 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-on-23-q05
Oct/Nov 2025 · Paper 23 · Question 5 · 6 marks
5 In the study by Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans), there were two types of victim who collapsed on the train.
5(a) Describe three ways that the two types of victim differed. 3
Identification of difference = 1 [x3]
Difference can be implicit.
• One was ‘drunk’ whereas one was ‘ill’
• One carried a (black) cane whereas one carried a bottle (in a brown bag)
• One smelled of liquor/alcohol whereas one appeared sober.
5(b) Explain why it was important that there were also similarities between the two types of victim. 3
Explanation = 1
Detail = 2 (can be 1 or 2 further suggestions)
Needs at least one link to the study for all three marks.
Standardisation / control / to limit confounding variables; (explanation)
• so, differences were only due to the IV; (generic explanation /detail)
• so, the victims looked like ordinary passengers; (linked detail)
• to ensure other trials (e.g. model) were consistent; (linked detail)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 11 of 23
Official mark scheme pages: 11 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-on-23-q06
Oct/Nov 2025 · Paper 23 · Question 6 · 6 marks
6 Describe open questions and closed questions, using any example(s). 6
1 mark for each definition/point of detail, up to a maximum of 2 for each term/concept.
1 mark for each example, max 2 for each term/concept.
Examples can include examples from any studies (core studies, other studies, candidate’s own studies).
Max 4 if no examples or if only about one term/concept.
Only 1 example needed to access 6 marks.
Open questions:
• allow participants to choose own response; (1 for definition)
• produce more detailed/ in depth / descriptive / qualitative data; (1 for detail)
• open questions are interpreted researchers / are subjective; (1 for detail)
Examples
• answers to ‘Describe/Explain …’ (1 for example)
• Dement & Kleitman ‘where participants were instructed to describe the content of the dream.’ (1 for example)
Closed questions:
• only allows P to choose from a limited number of options; (1 for definition)
• closed questions produce quantitative/ numerical data; (1 for detail)
• closed questions tend to be more objective /less subjective; (1 for detail)
Examples
• answers to ‘How many times on a scale of 1–10 …’ (1 for example)
• Eyes test choices in Baron-Cohen; (1 for example)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 12 of 23
Official mark scheme pages: 12 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-on-23-q07
Oct/Nov 2025 · Paper 23 · Question 7 · 9 marks
7 Pedro is conducting a study about children’s interest in different types of objects. He has objects for children to
explore, including picture books and toy bricks. Pedro is recording which objects children choose and for how
long they interact with those objects.
7(a)(i) Pedro wants to add more objects and is considering plush (soft) toys, wheeled toys, noisy toys and balls. 2
Explain why two of these objects could interest children. Your two answers must be different.
Explanation of interest to children = 1
Soft/animal toys:
• They could cuddle them / they are comforting/feel soft and warm. ;
Noisy toys:
• More stimulating than noiseless toys;
Wheeled toys:
• More stimulating because move; (allow only once)
Balls:
• More stimulating because move; (allow only once)
• They could play social games / games with others;
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 13 of 23
7(a)(ii) Suggest one reason why one of the objects named in part (a)(i) may not interest the children. 2
Explanation of lack of interest to children= 1
Link = 1
Soft/animal toys:
• The soft toy reminds them of bedtime (link);
• So they would not find them stimulating
Noisy toys:
• They might be scared of the noise (link)
• So they will not go near them;
Balls:
• Some children may be introverted;
• Which means that they do not want to play with the balls; (link)
Wheeled toys:
• The girls may see cars/trucks as ‘boys’ toys (link)
• And therefore, not be interested in playing them.
7(b) Suggest how Pedro could tell the children that they have the right to withdraw from his study in a way that they 2
will understand.
Suggestion of generic offer of withdrawal = 1 (e.g. a statement)
Suggestion of children friendly way of offering withdrawal linked to the study = 2
• Telling them they can leave the study (generic suggestion) = 1
• Telling the children that they don’t have to stay in the room and play with the toys (linked suggestion) = 2
• Saying that ‘You can stop playing with the toys and go home if you want to’ = 2
• Saying ‘You don’t have to stay and play with the toys if you don’t want to’ = 2
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 14 of 23
7(c) Pedro tests two children using a choice of picture books, toy bricks and one other object. He collects data about 3
how long each child interacts with the objects.
Draw a table that Pedro could use to collect this data. You must label the rows and columns of your table.
Row heading ‘Object’/’toy’ (type) = 1
Row categories of ‘object’ minimum picture books, toy bricks, ‘other object’ (abstractly or named) = 1
Column heading ‘Duration of interaction (with object) = 1
Column categories of Participants = 1
There are several acceptable table layouts, row/column layout can be reversed.
Duration of interaction
Object (e.g.)
Participant 1 Participant 2
Picture books
Toy bricks
Any other object
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 15 of 23
Official mark scheme pages: 13, 14, 15 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-on-23-q08
Oct/Nov 2025 · Paper 23 · Question 8 · 10 marks
8 Dr Bakar is investigating the effect of boredom on people’s estimation of time. Her participants were separated
into two groups, and did different activities:
• Group A watched an exciting film (non-boring activity)
• Group B moved small boxes from one pile to another (boring activity).
Both activities lasted 30 minutes. Each participant was asked to estimate how long the activity had lasted.
8(a) Outline the dependent variable in Dr Bakar’s study. 2
Outline of dependent variable = 1
Operationalisation = 1
• Estimation of time; (DV) = 1
• (Estimation of) how long the activity lasted; (operationalisation) = 2
8(b) Dr Bakar is concerned about possible differences between individuals in Group A and Group B that could affect
the validity of her study.
8(b)(i) Suggest why two possible differences between individuals in Group A and Group B could lower validity. 4
Suggestion of difference in participant variables = 1 [2]
Why = 1 [2]
• Watch more films / more interested in films; (suggestion)
• Likely to get involved (so time passes faster); (justification)
• Do box moving type job / shelf stacker; (suggestion)
• Even more bored so time moves extra slowly; (justification)
• Better at timing; (suggestion)
• Better timing when bored / in box condition; (justification)
• It may be that one person really likes moving boxes/stacking shelves more than another (suggestion)
• So they really get involved in the task (so time passes more quickly)
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 16 of 23
8(b)(ii) For one of the differences you suggested in part (b)(i): 2
Suggest how Dr Bakar could change her study to improve validity.
Suggested change = 1
Detail (e.g. how to achieve / how it helps) = 1
Watch more film/enjoys moving boxes:
• Use a questionnaire to match Ps; (suggestion)
• Then used matched pairs, one in each condition; (how it helps)
Shelf stacker:
• Randomly allocate people to conditions; (suggestion)
• so not all shelf stackers in one group; (detail)
Better at timing:
• Do a timing test first (and allocate accordingly); (suggestion)
• So differences due to IV/activity not timing ability; (detail)
8(c) Dr Bakar includes a control group in her study.
8(c)(i) Suggest a suitable control group for Dr Bakar’s study. 1
Suggestion of control group = 1
• No activity;
• A boring film;
• Moving exciting things about;
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 17 of 23
8(c)(ii) Explain why the control group you suggested in part (c)(i) is suitable. 1
Explanation of control group = 1
No activity:
• Time estimation might be the same as for boring;
• This will give a baseline to compare to the exciting/boring groups.
A boring film:
• Any difference might be due to vision/movement not boredom;
• Because that would remove the confounding variable of film preference.
Moving exciting things about:
• Any difference might be due to excitement (not vision or movement);
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 18 of 23
Official mark scheme pages: 16, 17, 18 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-on-23-q09
Oct/Nov 2025 · Paper 23 · Question 9 · 4 marks
9 Daniel is investigating the effect of childhood experiences on adult food preferences. He asked adult participants
to taste one food item. He counted the number of participants who liked this food item who had:
• a positive childhood experience of that food item
• a negative childhood experience of that food item
• no childhood experience of that food item.
9(a)
A graph of Daniel’s results is shown in Fig. 9.1.
9(a)(i) Name the type of graph in Figure 9.1. 1
Name = 1
Bar chart / Bar graph [definitive]
9(a)(ii) Suggest one conclusion from Daniel’s results. 1
Conclusion = 1
• Early food experiences affect later liking;
• Positive early experiences with a food increases later liking;
• Negative early experiences with a food decreases later liking;
• No early experience with the food produces greater liking than negative early experiences;
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 19 of 23
9(b) Suggest one problem with validity that Daniel may have because he is only using adults in his study, other than 2
generalisability.
Problem = 1 (can be generic)
Detail of effect on validity = 1
Adults may not remember early experiences; (problem)
• So may not miss out positive/negative experiences; (detail)
• So (may lie and) create experiences they did not have; (detail)
Low generalisability / low representativeness = 0 [NAQ]
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 20 of 23
Official mark scheme pages: 19, 20 · source PDF URL
9990-2025-on-23-q10
Oct/Nov 2025 · Paper 23 · Question 10 · 14 marks
10 Liam is a young man who is unusually good at focussing his attention on many types of stimuli, such as sights or
sounds.
10(a) Describe how a researcher could conduct a case study to investigate Liam’s unusual ability to focus his attention. 10
Do not describe ethical issues / guidelines in your answer.
To mark Q10(a), create four ‘imaginary columns’ down one margin, using one column for each of the four required features.
Tick each feature (tick-a, tick-b, tick-c, tick-d) when it appears, then underline the letter ( ) for detail.
Use L1, L2, L3, L4, L5 at the end of the response to indicate the level.
Use the table below to mark candidate responses to this question.
The four required features for this case study are:
(a) details about the participant / unit (exceptional attention, male, age, how found, other info e.g. from parents,
teachers/coworkers)
(b) content of information collected: (e.g. depth/detail: e.g. attention span (time), associated with different stimuli,
effect of boredom etc.)
(c) two or more techniques for data collection (observation, interview him, interview parents/teachers/coworkers
– at least two)
(d) analysis / interpretation / triangulation: (description of how data used: qualitative and/or quantitative)
Other appropriate responses should also be credited.
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 21 of 23
10(a)
Level The response:
Level 5 • has all the required features, all with detail, with mostly appropriate terminology.
9–10 marks AND
• clearly applies knowledge of methodology involved in planning an investigation.
Level 4 • has all the required features, but only some of these with detail, with some appropriate
7–8 marks terminology.
AND
• applies knowledge of methodology involved in planning an investigation.
Level 3 • has some of the required features with detail / all of the required features with no detail, and
5–6 marks some appropriate terminology.
AND
• applies a basic knowledge of methodology involved in planning an investigation.
Level 2 • has at least two of the required features, with little appropriate terminology.
3–4 marks AND
• attempts to use knowledge of methodology involved in planning an investigation.
Level 1 • has one of the required features and uses little appropriate terminology.
1–2 marks AND
• makes a limited attempt to use knowledge of methodology involved in planning an investigation,
e.g. may not use the method required by the question.
0 marks No creditable response.
Other appropriate responses should also be credited.
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 22 of 23
10(b) Explain how two features of the procedure you described in part (a) help to make the study valid. 4
Do not refer to ethics in your answer.
Identification of = 1 2
explanation (generic or linked) = 1 2
Part of procedure may relate to:
• operationalisation
• data collection techniques
• triangulation
Accept other practical influences on validity
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2025 Page 23 of 23
Official mark scheme pages: 21, 22, 23 · source PDF URL
